1 00:00:01,401 --> 00:00:03,837 NARRATOR: In 1972, NASA starts work 2 00:00:03,871 --> 00:00:09,009 on a radical new reusable spacecraft. 3 00:00:09,042 --> 00:00:13,446 Its innovative design pushes engineering to the limit. 4 00:00:13,480 --> 00:00:16,683 BOB CRIPPEN: They had to be light, they had to be reusable, 5 00:00:16,717 --> 00:00:19,820 and they had to be very powerful. 6 00:00:19,853 --> 00:00:21,888 NARRATOR: The space shuttle challenges engineers 7 00:00:21,922 --> 00:00:24,057 to create a vehicle that must withstand 8 00:00:24,091 --> 00:00:27,528 the explosive rigors of launch. 9 00:00:27,561 --> 00:00:31,465 MATT: Just that main engine, to get that to work 10 00:00:31,498 --> 00:00:33,200 is mind-boggling. 11 00:00:33,233 --> 00:00:34,634 NARRATOR: Just as incredible: 12 00:00:34,668 --> 00:00:37,804 the incinerating temperatures of reentry. 13 00:00:37,838 --> 00:00:41,408 STORY: You’re like in the middle of a blowtorch. 14 00:00:41,441 --> 00:00:46,246 NARRATOR: Not once -- but time and time again. 15 00:00:46,280 --> 00:00:48,883 TOM: A lot of sleepless nights over that. 16 00:00:48,916 --> 00:00:51,419 NARRATOR: Against all odds, engineers must strive 17 00:00:51,451 --> 00:00:54,287 to make spaceflight routine. 18 00:00:54,321 --> 00:00:59,026 BOB CRIPPEN: Flying in space is tough and it’s dangerous. 19 00:00:59,059 --> 00:01:02,496 NARRATOR: This is the remarkable story of the unsung heroes 20 00:01:02,529 --> 00:01:09,770 who designed, built and flew the space shuttle. 21 00:01:09,803 --> 00:01:17,577 [♪ theme music ♪] 22 00:01:20,213 --> 00:01:28,455 NARRATOR: April 12th, 1981. The Kennedy Space Center, Florida. 23 00:01:28,488 --> 00:01:30,957 Astronauts John Young and Bob Crippen 24 00:01:30,991 --> 00:01:33,227 are about to risk their lives in a vehicle 25 00:01:33,260 --> 00:01:38,565 that’s never flown before. 26 00:01:38,599 --> 00:01:41,335 Space Shuttle Columbia. 27 00:01:41,368 --> 00:01:42,502 BOB CRIPPEN: It was a test flight. 28 00:01:42,536 --> 00:01:44,405 We didn’t know exactly what it was gonna do. 29 00:01:44,438 --> 00:01:47,541 MISSION CONTROL: We’ve gone for main engine start. 30 00:01:47,574 --> 00:01:52,479 NARRATOR: The shuttle’s three main engines roar into life, 31 00:01:52,512 --> 00:01:58,118 followed by two giant solid rocket boosters... 32 00:01:58,151 --> 00:02:00,954 and the shuttle leaps from the pad. 33 00:02:00,988 --> 00:02:02,356 BOB CRIPPEN: That’s when my heart rate went up 34 00:02:02,389 --> 00:02:05,259 to about 130 beats per minute! 35 00:02:05,292 --> 00:02:07,594 NARRATOR: As Columbia thunders skywards, 36 00:02:07,628 --> 00:02:09,463 it’s the moment thousands of engineers 37 00:02:09,496 --> 00:02:12,599 have dedicated their lives to -- 38 00:02:12,633 --> 00:02:17,037 the launch of the first-ever reusable spacecraft. 39 00:02:21,708 --> 00:02:25,345 ♪ ♪ 40 00:02:25,379 --> 00:02:30,184 The space shuttle is an engineering marvel. 41 00:02:30,217 --> 00:02:31,919 For thirty years it was the workhorse 42 00:02:31,952 --> 00:02:35,255 of America’s space program, 43 00:02:35,288 --> 00:02:38,491 responsible for some of its most memorable achievements. 44 00:02:38,525 --> 00:02:41,061 ASTRONAUT: We’ve separated about one foot per second. 45 00:02:41,094 --> 00:02:44,130 NARRATOR: Launching satellites. 46 00:02:44,164 --> 00:02:49,336 Delivering and servicing the Hubble Space Telescope. 47 00:02:49,369 --> 00:02:51,605 And assembling humanity’s largest permanent 48 00:02:51,638 --> 00:02:58,812 outpost in space -- the International Space Station. 49 00:02:58,845 --> 00:03:01,848 The shuttle’s unrivaled array of space firsts 50 00:03:01,882 --> 00:03:06,053 rests with an extraordinary feature 51 00:03:06,086 --> 00:03:10,457 and an incredible engineering challenge: 52 00:03:10,490 --> 00:03:17,163 the ability to fly in space time and time again. 53 00:03:17,197 --> 00:03:19,533 ♪ ♪ 54 00:03:19,566 --> 00:03:23,003 For years the idea of a reusable spacecraft 55 00:03:23,036 --> 00:03:26,706 is the dream of early space pioneers. 56 00:03:26,740 --> 00:03:30,010 ARCHIVE: The capability to launch, maneuver in orbit, 57 00:03:30,043 --> 00:03:32,679 and then maneuver inside the atmosphere 58 00:03:32,713 --> 00:03:35,216 so that a landing can be made at will. 59 00:03:35,248 --> 00:03:37,984 ANDY: If you go back and you look at the old 60 00:03:38,018 --> 00:03:42,289 science fiction films of the 50’s, 61 00:03:42,322 --> 00:03:46,726 spaceships were reusable. It was accepted. 62 00:03:46,760 --> 00:03:50,197 And that dream was very much alive 63 00:03:50,230 --> 00:03:54,901 in the minds of the engineers at NASA. 64 00:03:54,935 --> 00:03:59,807 NARRATOR: By the end of the 1960s NASA has put men on the moon. 65 00:03:59,840 --> 00:04:03,410 But it’s come at a vast cost. 66 00:04:03,443 --> 00:04:05,812 Each multimillion-dollar moon rocket 67 00:04:05,846 --> 00:04:08,816 is discarded after launch. 68 00:04:08,849 --> 00:04:13,821 DON: In the case of the rocket engines and the rocket vehicles, 69 00:04:13,854 --> 00:04:17,091 they didn’t come back. They were throwaways. 70 00:04:17,124 --> 00:04:19,727 They burned up in the atmosphere, 71 00:04:19,760 --> 00:04:22,730 and those vehicles were expensive. 72 00:04:22,763 --> 00:04:25,532 NARRATOR: With budgets for space exploration falling, 73 00:04:25,565 --> 00:04:30,036 NASA must find a new solution. 74 00:04:30,070 --> 00:04:33,173 One which promises to make spaceflight routine -- 75 00:04:33,206 --> 00:04:36,409 and ultimately cheaper. 76 00:04:36,443 --> 00:04:38,445 ANDY: So you are saying to the engineers you have a chance 77 00:04:38,478 --> 00:04:42,048 to build the world’s first reusable spaceship, 78 00:04:42,082 --> 00:04:46,186 and it’s going to be amazing. 79 00:04:46,219 --> 00:04:49,656 NARRATOR: It’s a hugely ambitious project. 80 00:04:49,689 --> 00:04:55,061 And NASA must persuade the US Government to fund it. 81 00:04:55,095 --> 00:04:57,197 That means recruiting a powerful ally 82 00:04:57,230 --> 00:05:01,401 with a vested interest in space: 83 00:05:01,434 --> 00:05:04,971 the US Department of Defense. 84 00:05:05,005 --> 00:05:07,341 An eye in orbit is the perfect place 85 00:05:07,374 --> 00:05:11,345 to keep watch on America’s adversaries. 86 00:05:11,378 --> 00:05:14,281 ANDY: NASA understood that in order to get 87 00:05:14,314 --> 00:05:16,650 the shuttle approved they had to make 88 00:05:16,683 --> 00:05:22,722 the shuttle attractive to the Department of Defense. 89 00:05:22,756 --> 00:05:25,225 NARRATOR: Seeing the shuttle’s potential, the DoD 90 00:05:25,258 --> 00:05:28,928 agrees to join forces with NASA. 91 00:05:28,962 --> 00:05:32,933 But not without two important stipulations. 92 00:05:32,966 --> 00:05:35,335 First, the shuttle must be able to return 93 00:05:35,368 --> 00:05:40,974 to a specific landing site after just one orbit. 94 00:05:41,007 --> 00:05:44,143 ANDY: The DoD guys say launch, 95 00:05:44,177 --> 00:05:48,415 take classified reconnaissance photos, and come back down 96 00:05:48,448 --> 00:05:51,618 at the end of one orbit and land back at the launch site. 97 00:05:51,651 --> 00:05:55,722 The problem is that while you’re doing that one orbit 98 00:05:55,755 --> 00:06:01,094 in that 90 minutes the Earth is turning underneath you. 99 00:06:01,127 --> 00:06:03,863 NARRATOR: Meaning the shuttle’s launch site shifts 100 00:06:03,897 --> 00:06:07,200 over 1,000 miles eastward. 101 00:06:07,234 --> 00:06:09,403 ANDY: That means you’ve got to launch it like a rocket 102 00:06:09,436 --> 00:06:11,305 and land it like an airplane 103 00:06:11,338 --> 00:06:16,376 where you can steer to the proper landing point. 104 00:06:16,409 --> 00:06:18,411 NARRATOR: Such versatility is something that’s never been 105 00:06:18,445 --> 00:06:23,116 attempted before with a spacecraft 106 00:06:23,149 --> 00:06:28,021 but is critical in making it reusable. 107 00:06:28,054 --> 00:06:30,156 Aerospace engineer Tom Moser 108 00:06:30,190 --> 00:06:33,727 is tasked with the engineering challenge. 109 00:06:33,760 --> 00:06:35,895 TOM: As the requirements evolved, 110 00:06:35,929 --> 00:06:37,864 we knew we had to have a delta wing 111 00:06:37,898 --> 00:06:41,034 like some of the fighter jets. 112 00:06:41,067 --> 00:06:42,368 NARRATOR: A delta wing will give the shuttle 113 00:06:42,402 --> 00:06:47,440 more controllability when returning to Earth. 114 00:06:47,474 --> 00:06:50,077 At the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum, 115 00:06:50,110 --> 00:06:52,679 it’s possible to see this distinctive shape 116 00:06:52,712 --> 00:06:55,014 with Space Shuttle Discovery. 117 00:06:55,048 --> 00:06:57,517 VALERIE: The delta wing gave this vehicle 118 00:06:57,550 --> 00:07:01,821 maneuverability to move to the left, move to the right, 119 00:07:01,855 --> 00:07:05,058 and it also gave it maneuverability during reentry 120 00:07:05,091 --> 00:07:08,962 to make these big sweeping S turns 121 00:07:08,995 --> 00:07:12,866 as it was descending to bring this vehicle home. 122 00:07:12,899 --> 00:07:17,203 The wings are doing all the work. 123 00:07:17,237 --> 00:07:19,039 NARRATOR: The shuttle’s delta wing design 124 00:07:19,072 --> 00:07:24,210 promises the flying versatility the military requires. 125 00:07:24,244 --> 00:07:27,447 But NASA must also fulfill the second major requirement 126 00:07:27,480 --> 00:07:29,315 from the Department of Defense -- 127 00:07:29,349 --> 00:07:34,254 launching large spy satellites. 128 00:07:34,287 --> 00:07:36,923 TOM: We had to carry a very large payload. 129 00:07:36,957 --> 00:07:41,862 It weighed like 65,000 pounds, 15 feet in diameter 130 00:07:41,895 --> 00:07:45,198 and 60 feet long. 131 00:07:45,231 --> 00:07:46,899 NARRATOR: The strict military requirements 132 00:07:46,933 --> 00:07:50,336 dictate the design and shape of the spacecraft, 133 00:07:50,370 --> 00:07:53,240 called the orbiter. 134 00:07:53,273 --> 00:07:56,643 To launch it, engineers must build three revolutionary 135 00:07:56,676 --> 00:08:01,915 rocket engines fueled by a giant external tank, along with 136 00:08:01,948 --> 00:08:07,821 two solid rocket boosters, giant reusable rockets, 137 00:08:07,854 --> 00:08:10,890 and then combine them to provide the immense thrust 138 00:08:10,924 --> 00:08:15,562 needed to lift the heavy payloads into orbit. 139 00:08:15,595 --> 00:08:19,532 TOM: So it was huge. The DoD requirements were a big driver. 140 00:08:19,566 --> 00:08:24,371 A huge driver in the design of the shuttle. 141 00:08:24,404 --> 00:08:26,006 NARRATOR: The military’s demands create 142 00:08:26,039 --> 00:08:30,377 a huge engineering challenge. 143 00:08:30,410 --> 00:08:35,382 But having them on board checks the boxes on Capitol Hill. 144 00:08:35,415 --> 00:08:39,486 And in January 1972 President Nixon green-lights funding 145 00:08:39,519 --> 00:08:42,088 for the shuttle program. 146 00:08:42,122 --> 00:08:43,924 ANDY: But this was a new idea, 147 00:08:43,957 --> 00:08:46,326 and it was one thing to say it, 148 00:08:46,359 --> 00:08:49,162 and it’s another thing to actually do it. 149 00:08:49,195 --> 00:08:52,565 NARRATOR: Now NASA, and the engineers it will employ, 150 00:08:52,599 --> 00:08:54,534 face the enormity of constructing 151 00:08:54,567 --> 00:08:58,171 one of the most complex machines ever built. 152 00:09:00,874 --> 00:09:02,442 ♪ ♪ 153 00:09:02,475 --> 00:09:05,478 California, 1972. 154 00:09:05,512 --> 00:09:08,015 With the space shuttle’s design determined, 155 00:09:08,048 --> 00:09:10,284 engineers at Rocketdyne begin work 156 00:09:10,316 --> 00:09:15,354 on a critical element of getting the orbiter into space: 157 00:09:15,388 --> 00:09:18,858 its three main engines. 158 00:09:18,892 --> 00:09:21,795 Fresh out of college, Dan Hausman is challenged 159 00:09:21,828 --> 00:09:25,765 to help create a revolutionary rocket engine. 160 00:09:25,799 --> 00:09:27,301 DAN: It was very exciting because it was 161 00:09:27,333 --> 00:09:28,901 a brand new engine program, 162 00:09:28,935 --> 00:09:31,805 and we called it the white truck to space. 163 00:09:31,838 --> 00:09:35,241 Once a week we would take the space shuttle to orbit 164 00:09:35,275 --> 00:09:38,245 and life would be good. 165 00:09:38,278 --> 00:09:41,481 That’s really not how it ended up. 166 00:09:41,514 --> 00:09:46,219 It was a big challenge to get that system to work. 167 00:09:46,252 --> 00:09:47,920 NARRATOR: The space shuttle main engines 168 00:09:47,954 --> 00:09:52,625 will be the most sophisticated ever built, and, 169 00:09:52,659 --> 00:09:55,061 most importantly, reliable enough 170 00:09:55,095 --> 00:09:58,565 to be used time and time again -- 171 00:09:58,598 --> 00:10:02,435 a demand that’s never been made of a rocket engine before. 172 00:10:06,406 --> 00:10:07,641 BOB CRIPPEN: They had to be light. 173 00:10:07,674 --> 00:10:12,612 They had to be reusable and they had to be very powerful. 174 00:10:12,645 --> 00:10:14,447 All those factors combined to make 175 00:10:14,481 --> 00:10:18,819 an extreme engineering challenge. 176 00:10:18,852 --> 00:10:21,922 ♪ ♪ 177 00:10:21,955 --> 00:10:26,493 NARRATOR: Rocket engines produce thrust by burning propellants. 178 00:10:26,526 --> 00:10:29,596 Simply put, the more propellant burned each second, 179 00:10:29,629 --> 00:10:33,800 the more powerful the rocket. 180 00:10:33,833 --> 00:10:36,035 To increase the flow of propellant, 181 00:10:36,069 --> 00:10:42,208 rockets use a spinning pump called a turbopump 182 00:10:42,242 --> 00:10:50,450 to increase the fuel pressure, ultimately increasing thrust. 183 00:10:50,483 --> 00:10:53,486 To lift heavy payloads, the shuttle’s engines must deliver 184 00:10:53,520 --> 00:10:58,258 well over a million pounds of thrust -- a staggering amount. 185 00:11:00,527 --> 00:11:02,662 MATT: Think of the engineering that is required 186 00:11:02,695 --> 00:11:05,164 to make that system alone work. 187 00:11:05,198 --> 00:11:06,933 Forget about everything else that’s on the vehicle. 188 00:11:06,966 --> 00:11:13,306 Just that main engine, to get that to work is mind-boggling. 189 00:11:13,339 --> 00:11:15,374 NARRATOR: Dan Hausman and his colleagues know 190 00:11:15,408 --> 00:11:21,080 it requires a quantum leap in turbopump technology -- 191 00:11:21,114 --> 00:11:23,850 engineering one with a phenomenal spin rate 192 00:11:23,883 --> 00:11:29,455 of up to 600 revolutions -- every second. 193 00:11:29,489 --> 00:11:32,325 DAN: Your car engine runs at 3,000 rpm. 194 00:11:32,358 --> 00:11:36,495 A high-pressure fuel turbopump ran at 33,000 rpm, 195 00:11:36,529 --> 00:11:41,534 and the balance of that has to be perfect. 196 00:11:41,568 --> 00:11:45,539 NARRATOR: But Dan’s team have an engineering solution. 197 00:11:45,572 --> 00:11:49,676 Place a small rocket inside the main engine 198 00:11:49,709 --> 00:11:56,216 and use its powerful exhaust to rapidly spin the turbopumps. 199 00:11:56,249 --> 00:12:01,454 It’s called a preburner. It looks good on paper... 200 00:12:08,161 --> 00:12:09,663 [Explosion] 201 00:12:09,696 --> 00:12:15,402 ... but on the test stand the engines catastrophically fail 202 00:12:15,435 --> 00:12:17,904 in a fraction of a second. 203 00:12:17,937 --> 00:12:22,175 BOB CRIPPEN: Those initial tests, the engines came apart quite often, 204 00:12:22,208 --> 00:12:24,677 which is not a pretty thing to watch, 205 00:12:24,711 --> 00:12:27,881 especially if you plan on using that to go fly. 206 00:12:27,914 --> 00:12:30,850 NARRATOR: The problem is a balancing act. 207 00:12:30,883 --> 00:12:34,019 If the preburner spins the pumps too slowly, 208 00:12:34,053 --> 00:12:36,889 the engines won’t get enough fuel. 209 00:12:36,923 --> 00:12:41,961 Too fast, and the pumps spin to destruction. 210 00:12:41,995 --> 00:12:44,564 DAN: It just has to be perfect, a jewel watch; 211 00:12:44,597 --> 00:12:47,066 and if it’s not it’ll just come apart, 212 00:12:47,100 --> 00:12:50,170 and that’s where the issues were, was in turbopumps, 213 00:12:50,203 --> 00:12:52,038 and that’s why the turbopumps have been redesigned 214 00:12:52,071 --> 00:12:54,473 a number of times. 215 00:12:54,507 --> 00:12:56,376 NARRATOR: Calculating something as complex as 216 00:12:56,409 --> 00:12:59,045 the performance of a rocket engine is a breeze 217 00:12:59,078 --> 00:13:02,582 with today’s computing power. 218 00:13:02,615 --> 00:13:06,185 But with the limiting technology of the 1970s, 219 00:13:06,219 --> 00:13:10,223 it’s a painfully slow process. 220 00:13:10,256 --> 00:13:13,059 DAN: And all of our engineering was done on slide rules. 221 00:13:13,092 --> 00:13:16,495 There was no such thing as computers. 222 00:13:16,529 --> 00:13:19,098 We calculated that all by hand. 223 00:13:19,132 --> 00:13:21,434 NARRATOR: Dan’s team persist, 224 00:13:21,467 --> 00:13:26,339 precisely fine-tuning the turbopumps, 225 00:13:26,372 --> 00:13:30,877 allowing each rocket engine to fire without a hitch. 226 00:13:30,910 --> 00:13:33,813 DAN: And when those three engines actually all lit 227 00:13:33,846 --> 00:13:38,150 and behaved nicely, we all said, wow, that was amazing. 228 00:13:42,188 --> 00:13:44,290 NARRATOR: Getting astronauts into orbit requires 229 00:13:44,324 --> 00:13:49,596 a remarkable feat of engineering. 230 00:13:49,629 --> 00:13:53,800 But getting them safely back is an even greater challenge. 231 00:13:55,735 --> 00:13:57,937 ANDY: Yeah, you’ve gotta have a lot of power 232 00:13:57,970 --> 00:14:01,140 to get a spaceship into orbit, 233 00:14:01,174 --> 00:14:04,678 but the tricky part turns out to be getting it back 234 00:14:04,711 --> 00:14:10,584 through the atmosphere in that process that we call reentry. 235 00:14:10,616 --> 00:14:12,785 NARRATOR: To orbit Earth requires a speed 236 00:14:12,819 --> 00:14:18,525 of around 17,500 miles an hour. 237 00:14:18,558 --> 00:14:21,127 But landing a shuttle safely means shedding 238 00:14:21,160 --> 00:14:24,163 almost all of that energy to touch down 239 00:14:24,197 --> 00:14:28,334 at around 200 miles an hour. 240 00:14:28,368 --> 00:14:31,204 As astronaut Story Musgrave can testify, 241 00:14:31,237 --> 00:14:36,342 this huge deceleration creates a fiery problem. 242 00:14:36,376 --> 00:14:39,179 STORY: It’s just outrageous. 243 00:14:39,212 --> 00:14:43,183 You think you should evaporate in a second, you are engulfed, 244 00:14:43,216 --> 00:14:47,087 you’re like in the middle of a blowtorch. 245 00:14:47,120 --> 00:14:49,623 NARRATOR: Early astronauts returned in capsules 246 00:14:49,655 --> 00:14:51,490 with heat shields designed to survive 247 00:14:51,524 --> 00:14:59,098 only one blistering reentry. 248 00:14:59,132 --> 00:15:02,102 But the space shuttle must fly multiple missions, 249 00:15:02,135 --> 00:15:07,307 which produces a critical engineering problem. 250 00:15:07,340 --> 00:15:09,609 ANDY: How do you create a heat shield 251 00:15:09,642 --> 00:15:16,048 that can withstand that searing heat and be unscathed 252 00:15:16,082 --> 00:15:19,018 so that you can use it again? 253 00:15:19,051 --> 00:15:24,323 NARRATOR: For the engineers this forces a radical rethink. 254 00:15:24,357 --> 00:15:27,527 The Holy Grail is a material that can withstand temperatures 255 00:15:27,560 --> 00:15:32,765 of up to 2,300 degrees Fahrenheit. 256 00:15:32,799 --> 00:15:36,202 Eventually engineers discover a breakthrough. 257 00:15:36,235 --> 00:15:40,973 ANDY: In the 1960s, Lockheed, working with the help of NASA, 258 00:15:41,007 --> 00:15:43,276 came up with a new technology. 259 00:15:43,309 --> 00:15:47,613 And that new technology was made out of silica, 260 00:15:47,647 --> 00:15:49,816 just like beach sand. 261 00:15:49,849 --> 00:15:52,018 NARRATOR: It’s discovered that silica can be used 262 00:15:52,051 --> 00:15:54,854 to create a hard, lightweight ceramic 263 00:15:54,887 --> 00:15:58,924 with amazing thermal properties, 264 00:15:58,958 --> 00:16:02,528 providing an extremely good barrier against heat, 265 00:16:02,562 --> 00:16:05,965 as thermal protection systems engineer Martin Wilson 266 00:16:05,998 --> 00:16:07,299 demonstrates. 267 00:16:07,967 --> 00:16:11,804 MARTIN: If you heat it up, it tends to cool off very rapidly. 268 00:16:11,838 --> 00:16:17,077 So you can hit it with a lot of heat. 269 00:16:17,109 --> 00:16:18,077 It gets very hot very quickly, 270 00:16:18,110 --> 00:16:21,513 but it also sheds heat very, very rapidly also. 271 00:16:21,547 --> 00:16:24,884 And the back is just cold to the touch. 272 00:16:24,917 --> 00:16:29,488 NARRATOR: Silica ceramics fit the bill as a reusable heat shield. 273 00:16:29,522 --> 00:16:33,726 But the engineers aren’t out of the woods yet. 274 00:16:33,759 --> 00:16:35,561 Now they must find a way of covering 275 00:16:35,595 --> 00:16:39,399 the shuttle’s aluminum airframe. 276 00:16:39,432 --> 00:16:41,834 But it’s much larger and more complex 277 00:16:41,868 --> 00:16:46,339 than conical reentry capsules. 278 00:16:46,372 --> 00:16:52,979 Engineers plan to clad it with thousands of custom-made tiles. 279 00:16:53,012 --> 00:16:56,215 BOB CRIPPEN: The tiles were essentially all different. 280 00:16:56,249 --> 00:16:59,219 Every one had to be manufactured specifically 281 00:16:59,252 --> 00:17:02,422 for a particular spot on the vehicle. 282 00:17:02,455 --> 00:17:04,891 NARRATOR: It’s a painstaking task. 283 00:17:04,924 --> 00:17:12,899 Over 33,000 tiles must be cut, fired and precisely glued. 284 00:17:12,932 --> 00:17:14,967 But in March 1979, 285 00:17:15,001 --> 00:17:17,837 with its maiden flight just one year away, 286 00:17:17,870 --> 00:17:20,506 orbital assembler Rockwell International 287 00:17:20,540 --> 00:17:25,412 are falling behind schedule. 288 00:17:25,444 --> 00:17:28,380 They transport the orbiter from their plant in California 289 00:17:28,414 --> 00:17:31,918 to Florida, where the remaining tiles will be attached. 290 00:17:31,951 --> 00:17:37,423 ♪ ♪ 291 00:17:37,456 --> 00:17:40,492 But the trip reveals a design flaw which requires 292 00:17:40,526 --> 00:17:44,830 a radical rethink if the shuttle is to make it into space. 293 00:17:49,335 --> 00:17:52,171 When Columbia arrives at the Kennedy Space Center 294 00:17:52,204 --> 00:17:56,375 on the back of a specially modified 747 Jumbo Jet, 295 00:17:56,409 --> 00:18:00,680 engineers like Bob Sieck can hardly believe their eyes. 296 00:18:00,713 --> 00:18:02,615 BOB SIECK: It didn’t look as nice as 297 00:18:02,648 --> 00:18:06,986 the advertising brochure would’ve indicated. 298 00:18:07,019 --> 00:18:10,689 There was lots of exposed skin. 299 00:18:10,723 --> 00:18:14,060 NARRATOR: Thousands of tiles are missing. 300 00:18:14,093 --> 00:18:16,562 Many have fallen off in transit. 301 00:18:16,596 --> 00:18:18,665 It’s a shocking realization. 302 00:18:18,698 --> 00:18:22,735 TOM: The tiles didn’t have sufficient strength to stay on. 303 00:18:22,768 --> 00:18:29,341 Means we can’t fly. Pure and simple. Could not fly. 304 00:18:29,375 --> 00:18:31,777 ANDY: So suddenly the engineers had to stop and say, 305 00:18:31,811 --> 00:18:34,447 oh my God, how are we gonna prevent this from happening 306 00:18:34,480 --> 00:18:37,817 to a shuttle in flight? 307 00:18:37,850 --> 00:18:39,719 NARRATOR: The shuttle is grounded. 308 00:18:39,752 --> 00:18:46,125 NASA scrambles to understand why so many tiles have fallen off. 309 00:18:46,158 --> 00:18:52,498 The answer lies with something as small as stitching. 310 00:18:52,531 --> 00:18:54,600 The shuttle is designed to flex 311 00:18:54,634 --> 00:18:58,238 during the stresses and strains of flight. 312 00:18:58,270 --> 00:19:01,039 But attaching tiles to a flexing airframe 313 00:19:01,073 --> 00:19:04,443 is a recipe for disaster. 314 00:19:04,477 --> 00:19:08,281 So the tiles are glued onto stitched felt pads 315 00:19:08,314 --> 00:19:12,885 that absorb the forces, keeping the tiles from cracking. 316 00:19:12,918 --> 00:19:15,721 TOM: The tiles are very rigid and very fragile, 317 00:19:15,755 --> 00:19:21,094 so the pad allows the tile to move relative to the aluminum. 318 00:19:21,127 --> 00:19:25,531 NARRATOR: But on inspection a startling discovery is made. 319 00:19:25,564 --> 00:19:29,134 The orientation of stitching within the felt pads means 320 00:19:29,168 --> 00:19:32,238 that instead of absorbing the forces of flexing, 321 00:19:32,271 --> 00:19:36,408 the pads are amplifying them. 322 00:19:36,442 --> 00:19:42,648 It’s why so many tiles were lost in transit. 323 00:19:42,682 --> 00:19:47,620 For the engineers, the fix is a daunting realization. 324 00:19:47,653 --> 00:19:50,923 TOM: So we had to make the tiles stronger. 325 00:19:50,956 --> 00:19:52,758 That kept us awake at night. 326 00:19:52,792 --> 00:19:55,995 A lot of sleepless nights over that. 327 00:19:56,028 --> 00:19:58,130 NARRATOR: Engineers experiment with how to strengthen 328 00:19:58,164 --> 00:20:03,403 the tiles so they’ll remain attached to the felt pads. 329 00:20:03,436 --> 00:20:05,939 Their breakthrough is painting the bottom 330 00:20:05,971 --> 00:20:11,577 with a mix of silica, water and ammonia and then baking them. 331 00:20:11,610 --> 00:20:15,681 The solution soaks into the tiles, adding extra silica, 332 00:20:15,715 --> 00:20:19,419 which sets hard when heated. 333 00:20:19,452 --> 00:20:24,157 It’s a process called densification. 334 00:20:24,190 --> 00:20:25,858 TOM: It doubled the strength of the tile 335 00:20:25,891 --> 00:20:28,694 and essentially did not increase the weight a bit. 336 00:20:28,728 --> 00:20:32,198 Did not change the thermal performance. It was a miracle. 337 00:20:32,231 --> 00:20:36,635 Well, it was not a miracle, but it was good engineering. 338 00:20:36,669 --> 00:20:38,504 NARRATOR: It might be good engineering, 339 00:20:38,537 --> 00:20:41,774 but the implications are massive. 340 00:20:41,807 --> 00:20:44,610 Thousands of tiles must be stripped from Columbia 341 00:20:44,643 --> 00:20:47,279 and strengthened. 342 00:20:47,313 --> 00:20:50,650 TOM: We had to take them off the vehicle, densify them 343 00:20:50,683 --> 00:20:53,252 and put them back on the vehicle. 344 00:20:53,285 --> 00:20:55,888 NARRATOR: Desperate to have the shuttle ready for launch, 345 00:20:55,921 --> 00:21:02,861 NASA must expand its tile workforce from 200 to 3,000. 346 00:21:02,895 --> 00:21:07,199 ANDY: Now you have to call in an army of technicians. 347 00:21:07,233 --> 00:21:10,403 This is like a mobilization in wartime. 348 00:21:10,436 --> 00:21:13,839 It’s gotta happen for just this one problem. 349 00:21:13,873 --> 00:21:16,743 TOM: It was a schedule nightmare. 350 00:21:16,776 --> 00:21:20,146 And we literally counted tiles. How many we’d put on? 351 00:21:20,179 --> 00:21:24,216 How many did we take off? How many do we have left to go? 352 00:21:24,250 --> 00:21:27,220 NARRATOR: More than a year is spent working round the clock 353 00:21:27,253 --> 00:21:32,625 to complete Columbia’s thermal protection system. 354 00:21:32,658 --> 00:21:35,161 ♪ ♪ 355 00:21:35,194 --> 00:21:37,396 The astronauts know their lives depend 356 00:21:37,429 --> 00:21:40,465 on the quality of this work. 357 00:21:40,499 --> 00:21:42,134 BOB CRIPPEN: John Young and I spent a lot of time 358 00:21:42,168 --> 00:21:45,772 with the people that were doing the tile work 359 00:21:45,805 --> 00:21:47,240 telling them how much we appreciated the effort 360 00:21:47,273 --> 00:21:49,876 they were going through, how important it was. 361 00:21:49,909 --> 00:21:52,178 It was your body that was going to be strapped into that thing, 362 00:21:52,211 --> 00:21:55,214 and you wanted to make sure it would work. 363 00:21:55,247 --> 00:21:57,282 NARRATOR: Fixing Columbia’s heat shield ranks as 364 00:21:57,316 --> 00:22:00,052 one of the crowning engineering achievements 365 00:22:00,085 --> 00:22:07,359 responsible for certifying the space shuttle ready to fly. 366 00:22:07,393 --> 00:22:09,061 ♪ ♪ 367 00:22:09,094 --> 00:22:12,464 April 12th, 1981. 368 00:22:12,498 --> 00:22:18,371 Columbia finally stands poised for its first test flight. 369 00:22:18,404 --> 00:22:21,307 Preparing to board are Commander John Young 370 00:22:21,340 --> 00:22:24,877 and Pilot Bob Crippen. 371 00:22:24,910 --> 00:22:28,981 BOB CRIPPEN: Flying in space is tough and it’s dangerous. 372 00:22:29,014 --> 00:22:30,382 It was a test flight. 373 00:22:30,416 --> 00:22:33,185 We didn’t know exactly what it was gonna do. 374 00:22:33,219 --> 00:22:37,757 NARRATOR: Chief shuttle engineer Bob Sieck is in the firing room. 375 00:22:37,790 --> 00:22:39,825 BOB SIECK: There was tension, apprehension; 376 00:22:39,859 --> 00:22:41,928 but on the other hand there was confidence saying, 377 00:22:41,961 --> 00:22:45,164 hey, we’ve done the best we can. 378 00:22:45,197 --> 00:22:48,367 TOM: The anxiety was high, extremely high, 379 00:22:48,400 --> 00:22:54,840 because we had two of our, two of our colleagues on board. 380 00:22:54,874 --> 00:22:58,177 MISSION CONTROL: T minus 10, 9... 381 00:22:58,210 --> 00:22:59,445 NARRATOR: The astronauts ready themselves 382 00:22:59,478 --> 00:23:03,482 for the flight of a lifetime. 383 00:23:03,515 --> 00:23:04,983 BOB CRIPPEN: I turned to John and I said, 384 00:23:05,017 --> 00:23:07,219 "I think we might do it." 385 00:23:07,253 --> 00:23:09,889 NARRATOR: At T minus 6 seconds, the shuttle’s fuel pumps 386 00:23:09,922 --> 00:23:14,093 spin into life as the engines ignite. 387 00:23:14,126 --> 00:23:15,761 MISSION CONTROL: We’ve gone for main engines start. 388 00:23:15,794 --> 00:23:18,664 ♪ ♪ 389 00:23:18,697 --> 00:23:20,165 BOB CRIPPEN: And that’s when my heart rate went up 390 00:23:20,199 --> 00:23:26,005 to about 130 beats per minute. I was pretty excited. 391 00:23:26,038 --> 00:23:28,173 TOM: It was like something being born saying, 392 00:23:28,207 --> 00:23:31,410 "Look, I’m ready to go!" 393 00:23:31,443 --> 00:23:33,378 NARRATOR: Finally, as the shuttle’s two 394 00:23:33,412 --> 00:23:38,851 solid rocket boosters ignite, Columbia surges from the pad. 395 00:23:38,884 --> 00:23:44,623 ♪ ♪ 396 00:23:44,657 --> 00:23:46,559 BOB CRIPPEN: I mean you get up and move, you clear the tower 397 00:23:46,592 --> 00:23:47,893 in a couple of seconds! 398 00:23:47,927 --> 00:23:49,962 [Engines roaring] 399 00:23:49,995 --> 00:23:59,838 ♪ ♪ 400 00:23:59,872 --> 00:24:01,307 NARRATOR: The engineers in the firing room 401 00:24:01,340 --> 00:24:04,810 can hardly contain their excitement. 402 00:24:04,843 --> 00:24:08,780 BOB SIECK: There’s this initial shout of joy from the control room, 403 00:24:08,814 --> 00:24:12,651 big roar, and then we all remembered our discipline 404 00:24:12,685 --> 00:24:17,256 and it was immediately quiet. 405 00:24:17,289 --> 00:24:19,658 NARRATOR: After a bone-jarring two minutes, 406 00:24:19,692 --> 00:24:23,262 the mighty solid rocket boosters are spent. 407 00:24:23,295 --> 00:24:25,164 MISSION CONTROL: This is the SRV-7 flight... 408 00:24:28,300 --> 00:24:30,602 BOB SIECK: Another big roar, and then another, 409 00:24:30,636 --> 00:24:33,906 "Oops, remember our discipline." Quiet. 410 00:24:33,939 --> 00:24:36,408 MISSION CONTROL: Negative [inaudible]. Columbia, you’re negative [inaudible]. 411 00:24:40,379 --> 00:24:43,983 BOB CRIPPEN: At that point it gets really quiet. 412 00:24:44,016 --> 00:24:46,585 You’re not shaking anymore. 413 00:24:46,618 --> 00:24:50,088 It’s about as calm as me sitting here in this chair. 414 00:24:50,122 --> 00:24:53,425 NARRATOR: Finally, eight and a half minutes after launch, 415 00:24:53,459 --> 00:24:56,329 Columbia’s three main engines shut down, 416 00:24:56,362 --> 00:25:00,066 having performed perfectly. 417 00:25:00,099 --> 00:25:01,467 [Laughing] 418 00:25:01,500 --> 00:25:06,138 BOB SIECK: Euphoria reined. High five, hugs, handshakes, 419 00:25:06,171 --> 00:25:07,906 tears, flag-waving. 420 00:25:07,940 --> 00:25:11,977 LEE: There probably wasn’t a dry eye in Firing Room 2. 421 00:25:12,011 --> 00:25:16,115 I mean, it was just an emotional experience. 422 00:25:16,148 --> 00:25:19,184 NARRATOR: After almost a decade of engineering toil, 423 00:25:19,218 --> 00:25:23,856 Space Shuttle Columbia arrives in orbit. 424 00:25:23,889 --> 00:25:30,863 Engineers and astronauts are ecstatic. But it’s short lived. 425 00:25:30,896 --> 00:25:32,297 ♪ ♪ 426 00:25:32,331 --> 00:25:35,901 As the astronauts open the shuttle’s payload bay doors, 427 00:25:35,934 --> 00:25:40,138 they’re greeted by an alarming sight. 428 00:25:40,172 --> 00:25:44,376 Missing protective tiles -- which could spell disaster 429 00:25:44,410 --> 00:25:46,612 for their safe return to Earth. 430 00:25:49,314 --> 00:25:51,216 BOB CRIPPEN: When I opened up the payload bay doors, 431 00:25:51,250 --> 00:25:53,986 I saw that we had some tiles missing. 432 00:25:54,019 --> 00:25:56,688 It did cause a lot of consternation on the ground. 433 00:25:56,722 --> 00:25:58,824 ASTRONAUT: We do have a few tiles missing. 434 00:25:58,857 --> 00:26:01,993 MISSION CONTROL: Roger Cripp, we can see that good. 435 00:26:02,027 --> 00:26:04,930 NARRATOR: Unmistakable black patches reveal where 436 00:26:04,963 --> 00:26:10,535 tiles from the spacecraft’s heat shield have torn off. 437 00:26:10,569 --> 00:26:13,038 Luckily, they’re missing from a noncritical area 438 00:26:13,072 --> 00:26:15,041 on the topside of the vehicle. 439 00:26:18,277 --> 00:26:20,946 ANDY: Now, that part of the shuttle is not a real cause 440 00:26:20,979 --> 00:26:24,015 for concern because it does not experience 441 00:26:24,049 --> 00:26:28,253 the really intense heating during reentry. 442 00:26:28,287 --> 00:26:32,358 But what no one knows is, are we also missing tiles 443 00:26:32,391 --> 00:26:34,326 underneath the shuttle, 444 00:26:34,359 --> 00:26:39,164 where a missing tile could be catastrophic? 445 00:26:39,198 --> 00:26:41,367 NARRATOR: During reentry, Columbia’s underside 446 00:26:41,400 --> 00:26:43,736 will experience searing temperatures 447 00:26:43,769 --> 00:26:47,172 of up to 2,300 degrees Fahrenheit. 448 00:26:50,075 --> 00:26:53,078 Tiles lost from here pose a significant threat 449 00:26:53,112 --> 00:26:55,615 to the astronauts’ survival. 450 00:26:55,647 --> 00:26:58,683 TOM: If a tile was missing, there was no way to repair it. 451 00:26:58,717 --> 00:27:00,819 There was nothing to do. 452 00:27:00,853 --> 00:27:02,822 NARRATOR: The fate of Columbia’s astronauts 453 00:27:02,855 --> 00:27:06,692 will only become clear when they reenter the atmosphere. 454 00:27:11,296 --> 00:27:13,532 ♪ ♪ 455 00:27:13,565 --> 00:27:17,969 April 14th, 1981. 456 00:27:18,003 --> 00:27:20,639 After a near-textbook two days in orbit, 457 00:27:20,672 --> 00:27:23,141 Columbia begins the final critical part 458 00:27:23,175 --> 00:27:28,480 of its maiden flight, 459 00:27:28,514 --> 00:27:32,585 slamming into the atmosphere at over 17,000 miles an hour 460 00:27:32,618 --> 00:27:36,555 as it returns to Earth. 461 00:27:36,588 --> 00:27:38,056 BOB CRIPPEN: It’s about Mach 25 when you hit 462 00:27:38,090 --> 00:27:41,694 the Earth’s atmosphere at around 400,000 feet. 463 00:27:41,727 --> 00:27:44,263 NARRATOR: As Columbia begins to experience the blazing heat 464 00:27:44,296 --> 00:27:47,399 of reentry, all thoughts are on the orbiter’s 465 00:27:47,432 --> 00:27:50,902 thermal protection system. 466 00:27:50,936 --> 00:27:53,338 TOM: That was a scary moment. 467 00:27:53,372 --> 00:27:54,573 ANDY: You know, who knew if this thing 468 00:27:54,606 --> 00:27:57,843 was actually surviving reentry? 469 00:27:57,876 --> 00:28:00,212 TOM: We didn’t know if it would burn through or what. 470 00:28:00,245 --> 00:28:03,448 NARRATOR: Enveloped in a searing shroud of plasma, 471 00:28:03,482 --> 00:28:06,518 radio communications with Columbia are lost 472 00:28:06,552 --> 00:28:09,889 for a nail-biting 16 minutes. 473 00:28:16,161 --> 00:28:18,563 ASTRONAUT: Houston, Columbia’s here. 474 00:28:18,597 --> 00:28:21,266 MISSION CONTROL: Columbia, Houston’s here. How do you read? 475 00:28:21,300 --> 00:28:25,337 NARRATOR: But right on schedule, communications are restored. 476 00:28:25,370 --> 00:28:29,374 And the relief in Mission Control is palpable. 477 00:28:29,408 --> 00:28:31,277 ANDY: It was only when that call came through 478 00:28:31,310 --> 00:28:35,080 that everybody could breathe a sigh of relief. 479 00:28:35,113 --> 00:28:38,249 NARRATOR: Columbia’s heat shield survives reentry, 480 00:28:38,283 --> 00:28:41,620 and, escorted by two chase planes, the orbiter glides 481 00:28:41,653 --> 00:28:44,723 toward a landing at Edwards Air Force Base 482 00:28:44,756 --> 00:28:48,727 in California’s Mohave Desert. 483 00:28:48,760 --> 00:28:52,097 BOB CRIPPEN: No rattling or shaking. Just as smooth as can be. 484 00:28:52,130 --> 00:28:55,834 Bit like you coming in a commercial airliner somewhere. 485 00:28:55,867 --> 00:29:00,939 ♪ ♪ 486 00:29:00,973 --> 00:29:03,776 TOM: It was an "ahh" moment. 487 00:29:03,809 --> 00:29:08,614 BOB CRIPPEN: Wow, this thing works. It’s great. It’s a super machine. 488 00:29:08,647 --> 00:29:10,649 [Cheers and applause] 489 00:29:10,682 --> 00:29:13,018 NARRATOR: For the first time in history, a spacecraft 490 00:29:13,051 --> 00:29:17,355 has been launched as a rocket and returned as a glider -- 491 00:29:17,389 --> 00:29:21,360 a reusable vehicle ready to fly in space again. 492 00:29:27,899 --> 00:29:29,000 ♪ ♪ 493 00:29:29,034 --> 00:29:30,836 The success of Columbia paves the way 494 00:29:30,869 --> 00:29:37,142 for a new era in space flight. 495 00:29:37,175 --> 00:29:39,611 NASA rolls out three more orbiters, 496 00:29:39,645 --> 00:29:45,417 Challenger, Discovery and Atlantis, 497 00:29:45,450 --> 00:29:47,652 deftly demonstrating the shuttle’s ability 498 00:29:47,686 --> 00:29:51,557 to carry a wealth of scientific experiments, satellites 499 00:29:51,590 --> 00:29:54,760 and commercial payloads into orbit. 500 00:29:54,793 --> 00:30:00,866 ♪ ♪ 501 00:30:00,899 --> 00:30:05,604 For a while it seems spaceflight has become almost routine. 502 00:30:05,637 --> 00:30:08,206 MISSION CONTROL: T minus 4 minutes and counting. 503 00:30:13,679 --> 00:30:16,482 NARRATOR: January 28th, 1986. 504 00:30:20,118 --> 00:30:27,492 MISSION CONTROL: We have main engines start, 4, 3, 2, 1 and liftoff. 505 00:30:27,526 --> 00:30:30,662 Liftoff of the 25th space shuttle mission, 506 00:30:30,696 --> 00:30:33,132 and it has cleared the tower. 507 00:30:33,165 --> 00:30:34,900 ASTRONAUT: Roger that, Challenger. 508 00:30:37,536 --> 00:30:40,906 MISSION CONTROL: God, no! 509 00:30:40,939 --> 00:30:45,043 MISSION CONTROL: Fight controllers here looking very carefully at the situation, 510 00:30:45,077 --> 00:30:48,647 obviously a major malfunction. 511 00:30:48,680 --> 00:30:54,819 LEE: Immediately we know there’s been a tragedy. 512 00:30:54,853 --> 00:31:00,025 We know that seven lives have been lost. 513 00:31:00,058 --> 00:31:02,594 NARRATOR: Just 73 seconds after launch, 514 00:31:02,627 --> 00:31:05,196 Space Shuttle Challenger disintegrates 515 00:31:05,230 --> 00:31:08,366 in a devastating fireball. 516 00:31:08,400 --> 00:31:12,938 LEE: You can’t help but think, what happened? What did we do? 517 00:31:12,971 --> 00:31:17,075 What did we not do? What step did we miss in a procedure? 518 00:31:22,114 --> 00:31:24,316 NARRATOR: Immediately after the disaster, 519 00:31:24,349 --> 00:31:26,618 many engineers suspect the failure lies 520 00:31:26,651 --> 00:31:30,455 with one of the shuttle’s most complex components -- 521 00:31:30,489 --> 00:31:36,128 its main engines. 522 00:31:36,161 --> 00:31:38,764 But engineer Dan Hausman knows it’s too early 523 00:31:38,797 --> 00:31:41,933 to jump to conclusions. 524 00:31:41,967 --> 00:31:44,436 DAN: We were told it was an engine failure. 525 00:31:44,469 --> 00:31:46,371 Then I said, it could have been. 526 00:31:46,405 --> 00:31:51,343 Until we look at the data, we don’t know. 527 00:31:51,376 --> 00:31:53,678 NARRATOR: Hausman and his colleagues meticulously pore 528 00:31:53,712 --> 00:32:01,620 over every millisecond of data returned from each engine. 529 00:32:01,653 --> 00:32:03,054 DAN: Those engines, they were working 530 00:32:03,088 --> 00:32:05,557 just like they were supposed to. 531 00:32:05,590 --> 00:32:09,060 NARRATOR: Leading them to a more surprising conclusion. 532 00:32:09,094 --> 00:32:13,165 DAN: I quickly realized that it was an SRB issue. 533 00:32:13,198 --> 00:32:16,835 NARRATOR: The two solid rocket boosters -- SRBs for short -- 534 00:32:16,868 --> 00:32:19,304 help lift the shuttle off the pad. 535 00:32:19,337 --> 00:32:21,139 Firing for just over two minutes, 536 00:32:21,173 --> 00:32:25,444 they’re the largest of their type ever built. 537 00:32:25,477 --> 00:32:28,580 They draw on tried and tested technology, and, 538 00:32:28,613 --> 00:32:30,281 compared to the main engines, 539 00:32:30,315 --> 00:32:32,450 their design is relatively simple. 540 00:32:36,288 --> 00:32:38,290 STEVE: I never considered that the booster 541 00:32:38,323 --> 00:32:40,425 would ever cause us a problem. 542 00:32:40,459 --> 00:32:44,596 Because the booster really had no moving parts. 543 00:32:44,629 --> 00:32:47,599 NARRATOR: But analyzing film footage of Challenger’s launch 544 00:32:47,632 --> 00:32:49,834 suggests otherwise. 545 00:32:49,868 --> 00:32:51,636 STEVE: The first indication that we had 546 00:32:51,670 --> 00:32:54,306 was a film of the launch. 547 00:32:54,339 --> 00:32:58,243 You see a puff of smoke when they ignite the boosters. 548 00:32:58,276 --> 00:33:02,247 NARRATOR: The footage provides investigators with a vital clue. 549 00:33:02,280 --> 00:33:03,481 BOB CRIPPEN: Hardware talks to you. 550 00:33:03,515 --> 00:33:05,817 STEVE: It was trying to tell us we had a bad joint design. 551 00:33:05,851 --> 00:33:08,087 From the very beginning. 552 00:33:08,119 --> 00:33:10,054 NARRATOR: The solid rocket boosters are stacked 553 00:33:10,088 --> 00:33:14,559 from a number of segments joined together. 554 00:33:14,593 --> 00:33:20,866 Inside each joint are flexible rubber bands called O-rings. 555 00:33:20,899 --> 00:33:23,502 On ignition, pressure inside pushes on 556 00:33:23,535 --> 00:33:29,674 the flexible rubber O-rings, forcing them to seal each joint. 557 00:33:29,708 --> 00:33:31,777 But the black smoke caught on camera 558 00:33:31,810 --> 00:33:36,448 suggests an O-ring seal has failed. 559 00:33:36,481 --> 00:33:38,583 Engineers need to understand why 560 00:33:38,617 --> 00:33:41,920 a catastrophic failure occurs during this launch 561 00:33:41,953 --> 00:33:47,559 compared to the previous 24 successful launches. 562 00:33:47,592 --> 00:33:51,663 The team redoubles their efforts. 563 00:33:51,696 --> 00:33:55,266 BOB SIECK: On the morning that we actually launched Challenger, 564 00:33:55,300 --> 00:33:56,568 it was cold. 565 00:33:56,601 --> 00:34:00,638 STEVE: If you go look, it was, there was ice on the pad. 566 00:34:00,672 --> 00:34:03,175 NARRATOR: The night before launch, temperatures plummet 567 00:34:03,208 --> 00:34:10,115 into the low 20s -- almost unheard of in Florida. 568 00:34:10,148 --> 00:34:13,685 Investigations discover that at these freezing temperatures, 569 00:34:13,718 --> 00:34:16,487 the rubber-like O-rings become brittle and 570 00:34:16,521 --> 00:34:22,227 fail to seal the solid rocket booster joints as designed. 571 00:34:22,260 --> 00:34:27,165 This leads to the devastating chain of events with Challenger. 572 00:34:27,198 --> 00:34:28,933 STEVE: So what you actually have is something 573 00:34:28,967 --> 00:34:30,635 that looks like a blowtorch. 574 00:34:30,669 --> 00:34:35,240 You’ve got 6,000-degree gas going over both O-rings 575 00:34:35,273 --> 00:34:38,610 and out into the environment. 576 00:34:38,643 --> 00:34:41,045 NARRATOR: A little over a minute after launch, 577 00:34:41,079 --> 00:34:43,915 searing exhaust from the breached O-ring 578 00:34:43,949 --> 00:34:47,619 burns through the SRB’s lower strut, 579 00:34:47,652 --> 00:34:52,157 causing it to pivot into the giant external fuel tank, 580 00:34:52,190 --> 00:34:55,994 which ruptures, cascading tens of thousands of gallons 581 00:34:56,027 --> 00:35:01,666 of fuel into white-hot exhaust. 582 00:35:01,700 --> 00:35:07,206 BOB CRIPPEN: It was certainly not a day we should’ve gone flying. 583 00:35:07,238 --> 00:35:10,675 NARRATOR: The loss of Challenger is a huge blow for NASA 584 00:35:10,709 --> 00:35:13,378 and the engineers. 585 00:35:13,411 --> 00:35:16,848 DAN: After Challenger there’s a lot of us wanted to quit. 586 00:35:16,881 --> 00:35:19,183 We didn’t want to be part of a program 587 00:35:19,217 --> 00:35:21,820 that cost people their lives. 588 00:35:21,853 --> 00:35:24,155 We didn’t want to be a party to that. 589 00:35:24,189 --> 00:35:27,759 And so they brought people in to talk to us and said, 590 00:35:27,792 --> 00:35:30,094 "You know, we need you guys to help work 591 00:35:30,128 --> 00:35:32,998 so that doesn’t happen again." 592 00:35:33,031 --> 00:35:37,402 And so some people quit. They just couldn’t handle that. 593 00:35:37,435 --> 00:35:39,103 And so the rest of us just worked very hard 594 00:35:39,137 --> 00:35:41,840 to make sure it wouldn’t happen again. 595 00:35:41,873 --> 00:35:45,610 NARRATOR: Engineers redesign the SRB joints and O-rings, 596 00:35:45,644 --> 00:35:48,847 adding triple redundancy, with heaters that will keep them 597 00:35:48,880 --> 00:35:52,917 at a constant temperature. 598 00:35:52,951 --> 00:35:55,187 BOB CRIPPEN: Some people felt that was a belt and suspenders, 599 00:35:55,220 --> 00:36:00,092 but it made me feel a lot better to go fly. 600 00:36:00,125 --> 00:36:02,494 ♪ ♪ 601 00:36:02,527 --> 00:36:06,664 NARRATOR: September 29th, 1988. 602 00:36:06,698 --> 00:36:09,134 After a comprehensive engineering review 603 00:36:09,167 --> 00:36:11,803 and with hundreds of safety modifications, 604 00:36:11,836 --> 00:36:15,340 Space Shuttle Discovery heralds a return to flight 605 00:36:15,373 --> 00:36:19,978 of America’s manned space program. 606 00:36:20,011 --> 00:36:23,681 ♪ ♪ 607 00:36:23,715 --> 00:36:27,652 The next 15 years sees the shuttle once again prove itself 608 00:36:27,686 --> 00:36:31,356 as an engineering marvel. 609 00:36:31,389 --> 00:36:36,561 But its sheer complexity means the odds are stacked against it. 610 00:36:38,730 --> 00:36:41,666 February 1st, 2003. 611 00:36:41,700 --> 00:36:44,836 After 16 days in orbit, Columbia and its crew 612 00:36:44,869 --> 00:36:47,138 are on their way home, 613 00:36:47,172 --> 00:36:53,979 blazing through the atmosphere at 25 times the speed of sound. 614 00:36:54,012 --> 00:36:58,049 Then, just 15 minutes from landing, 615 00:36:58,083 --> 00:37:02,054 Mission Control are unable to establish radio contact. 616 00:37:05,590 --> 00:37:09,727 Unknown to them, Space Shuttle Columbia has disintegrated 617 00:37:09,761 --> 00:37:12,998 in the skies above Texas. 618 00:37:13,031 --> 00:37:16,668 MISSION CONTROL: Columbia, Houston, UHF comm check. 619 00:37:22,640 --> 00:37:26,043 NARRATOR: Eventually NASA’s worst fears are realized -- 620 00:37:26,077 --> 00:37:33,051 the loss of the orbiter and another seven astronauts. 621 00:37:33,084 --> 00:37:38,723 For NASA, losing a second shuttle is devastating. 622 00:37:38,757 --> 00:37:42,527 But the most likely cause makes it even more unbelievable. 623 00:37:42,560 --> 00:37:44,295 MISSION CONTROL: Okay, everybody. 624 00:37:44,329 --> 00:37:48,533 No data, no phone calls, no transmission anywhere outside. 625 00:37:48,566 --> 00:37:51,302 NARRATOR: Film footage reviewed after launch 626 00:37:51,336 --> 00:37:54,606 reveals a piece of foam insulation falling 627 00:37:54,639 --> 00:37:57,242 from the external fuel tank. 628 00:37:57,275 --> 00:38:01,379 It strikes the leading edge of Columbia’s wing. 629 00:38:01,412 --> 00:38:05,249 VALERIE: This is the leading edge of the delta wing. 630 00:38:05,283 --> 00:38:07,852 It’s made of a reinforced carbon-carbon, 631 00:38:07,886 --> 00:38:14,059 and it’s actually a cap that fits over the edge of the wing. 632 00:38:14,092 --> 00:38:17,996 It takes the highest heat of all during reentry. 633 00:38:18,029 --> 00:38:21,566 NARRATOR: And it’s during reentry that Columbia is lost -- 634 00:38:21,599 --> 00:38:23,501 suggesting its protective heat shield 635 00:38:23,535 --> 00:38:29,107 of reinforced carbon-carbon or RCC may have been breached. 636 00:38:29,140 --> 00:38:30,341 MATT: We really didn’t think something that was 637 00:38:30,375 --> 00:38:33,345 as light as a feather could break something as tough as RCC 638 00:38:33,378 --> 00:38:35,080 in half. 639 00:38:35,113 --> 00:38:37,849 NARRATOR: But as engineers begin their investigations, 640 00:38:37,882 --> 00:38:41,252 the truth behind Columbia’s disintegration 641 00:38:41,286 --> 00:38:43,855 will become tragically clear. 642 00:38:45,089 --> 00:38:47,258 ♪ ♪ 643 00:38:47,292 --> 00:38:49,661 Space Shuttle Columbia’s destruction 644 00:38:49,694 --> 00:38:52,664 leaves engineers dumbfounded. 645 00:38:52,697 --> 00:38:55,667 How could a seemingly harmless piece of foam 646 00:38:55,700 --> 00:39:01,339 smash a hole in the orbiter’s critical heat shield? 647 00:39:01,372 --> 00:39:04,275 Ballistics expert Matt Melis is one of the engineers 648 00:39:04,309 --> 00:39:08,013 tasked with finding out. 649 00:39:08,046 --> 00:39:09,881 MATT: We got a phone call from one of the folks 650 00:39:09,914 --> 00:39:12,917 at Johnson Space Center, and they said, 651 00:39:12,951 --> 00:39:14,619 "We think that this is an impact problem, 652 00:39:14,652 --> 00:39:17,121 and we think we’re going to need your help." 653 00:39:17,155 --> 00:39:20,892 NARRATOR: What they find is disturbing. 654 00:39:20,925 --> 00:39:23,928 MATT: So this is a little piece of foam, it weighs two grams. 655 00:39:23,962 --> 00:39:27,966 This is an example of the test specimens that we shot. 656 00:39:27,999 --> 00:39:30,201 It weighs what a sheet of paper weighs. 657 00:39:30,235 --> 00:39:33,138 The reinforced carbon-carbon -- and this is test sample of that 658 00:39:33,171 --> 00:39:35,407 -- this is what the leading edge of the wings are made out of. 659 00:39:35,440 --> 00:39:37,809 And our tests showed that, if going fast enough, 660 00:39:37,842 --> 00:39:41,479 500 miles an hour, which is not that fast in aerospace terms, 661 00:39:41,512 --> 00:39:44,048 this little piece of foam can cause critical damage 662 00:39:44,082 --> 00:39:46,618 to this material, which is as tough as nails. 663 00:39:46,651 --> 00:39:49,854 So it’s an amazing lesson that we learned from that. 664 00:39:49,888 --> 00:39:52,324 NARRATOR: The team examines the launch footage 665 00:39:52,357 --> 00:39:56,494 to determine exactly where the foam struck. 666 00:39:56,527 --> 00:39:59,697 They narrow it down to a specific area -- 667 00:39:59,731 --> 00:40:06,638 between carbon panels 6 and 9 of Columbia’s left wing. 668 00:40:06,671 --> 00:40:07,906 Building a replica, 669 00:40:07,939 --> 00:40:12,444 they focus on this part of the leading edge. 670 00:40:12,477 --> 00:40:18,717 Using a powerful airgun, they first fire foam at Panel 6. 671 00:40:18,750 --> 00:40:23,922 It remains intact -- leaving the engineers puzzled -- 672 00:40:23,955 --> 00:40:30,562 but a vital clue helps their next test. 673 00:40:30,595 --> 00:40:32,964 In the search for debris, investigators find 674 00:40:32,997 --> 00:40:35,900 fragments of Columbia’s leading edge panels 675 00:40:35,934 --> 00:40:38,937 belonging to the wing that was struck. 676 00:40:38,970 --> 00:40:41,539 MATT: They began to piece these tiles together 677 00:40:41,572 --> 00:40:44,008 and these fragments of the leading edge together, 678 00:40:44,042 --> 00:40:48,079 and they showed molten material in the area of Panel 8. 679 00:40:48,112 --> 00:40:51,482 NARRATOR: Most metals melt at extremely high temperatures, 680 00:40:51,516 --> 00:40:56,021 the kind experienced during reentry. 681 00:40:56,054 --> 00:40:59,524 Discovering so much melted metal around Panel 8 682 00:40:59,557 --> 00:41:03,061 is the breakthrough the engineers need. 683 00:41:03,094 --> 00:41:06,331 MATT: That really provided supporting evidence 684 00:41:06,364 --> 00:41:10,602 that this foam strike took place in the region of Panel 8. 685 00:41:10,635 --> 00:41:12,337 NARRATOR: The final piece of evidence comes from 686 00:41:12,370 --> 00:41:16,741 the foam firing tests. 687 00:41:16,774 --> 00:41:22,380 Engineers now focus on Panel 8. 688 00:41:22,413 --> 00:41:24,515 And the results are shocking. 689 00:41:24,549 --> 00:41:30,989 TEST FACILITY: 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0. Whoa! 690 00:41:35,994 --> 00:41:38,897 MATT: A piece of foam ultimately caused the loss of the vehicle 691 00:41:38,930 --> 00:41:40,565 and the loss of seven lives. 692 00:41:46,738 --> 00:41:50,609 NARRATOR: Engineers learn from the tragic lessons. 693 00:41:50,641 --> 00:41:54,645 But with the loss of two orbiters and 14 astronauts, 694 00:41:54,679 --> 00:41:59,083 the shuttle program’s days are numbered. 695 00:41:59,117 --> 00:42:01,052 ANDY: The Columbia accident, 696 00:42:01,085 --> 00:42:03,721 like the Challenger accident before it, 697 00:42:03,755 --> 00:42:08,360 was a very painful reminder that there was nothing routine 698 00:42:08,393 --> 00:42:12,297 about flying the space shuttle. 699 00:42:12,330 --> 00:42:14,465 NARRATOR: July 8th, 2011. 700 00:42:14,499 --> 00:42:17,369 ♪ ♪ 701 00:42:17,402 --> 00:42:24,142 Space Shuttle Atlantis lifts off on the program’s final flight. 702 00:42:24,175 --> 00:42:28,146 Over three decades, 135 shuttle missions chalk up 703 00:42:28,179 --> 00:42:33,017 a combined three and a half years in orbit, carrying 704 00:42:33,051 --> 00:42:39,891 355 individual astronauts from 16 different countries. 705 00:42:39,924 --> 00:42:46,531 and delivering over three and a half million pounds of payload. 706 00:42:46,564 --> 00:42:49,934 But ultimately the shuttle’s complexity means 707 00:42:49,967 --> 00:42:52,336 the running costs -- and risks -- 708 00:42:52,370 --> 00:42:57,141 are too high to continue flying. 709 00:42:57,175 --> 00:42:58,743 Today the shuttles reside 710 00:42:58,776 --> 00:43:02,146 in the Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum 711 00:43:02,180 --> 00:43:06,117 and other exhibits around America, 712 00:43:06,150 --> 00:43:09,854 an inspiration to all who come to see them. 713 00:43:09,887 --> 00:43:13,290 BOB CRIPPEN: You can’t fly a vehicle like this 714 00:43:13,324 --> 00:43:17,128 and not appreciate the handiwork of everyone 715 00:43:17,161 --> 00:43:19,930 that was involved in it. 716 00:43:19,964 --> 00:43:23,835 MATT: The accolades that those people deserve, 717 00:43:23,868 --> 00:43:27,739 it’s just an absolutely incredible amazing feat. 718 00:43:27,772 --> 00:43:31,175 VALERIE: They did what it took to keep this 719 00:43:31,209 --> 00:43:36,014 remarkable flying machine in service as the icon 720 00:43:36,047 --> 00:43:40,485 of American’s aspirations in space. 721 00:43:40,518 --> 00:43:44,288 NARRATOR: The shuttle’s work is now complete. 722 00:43:44,322 --> 00:43:48,860 But its engineering legacy will outlast those who built it. 723 00:43:48,893 --> 00:43:52,463 Of all things with wings, the shuttle has to be 724 00:43:52,497 --> 00:43:56,134 the most magnificent flying machine of all.