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♪

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♪

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DAVID POGUE:
What's it take to make our
modern world?

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Ah!

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(Pogue shouts)

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That's amazing!

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I'm David Pogue.

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{\an1}Join me on a high-speed chase

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{\an1}through the elements...

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and beyond.

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(explosions)

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Oh, my God!

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{\an1}As we smash our way into
the materials,

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molecules,

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and reactions...

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AMANDA CAVANAGH:It's a really cool enzyme

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{\an1}because it makes life on Earth
possible.

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POGUE:...that make the places we live,

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the bodies we live in,

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{\an1}and the stuff we can't seem
to live without.

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{\an1}The only thing between me and
certain death...

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{\an1}(explosions boom,
glass shatters)

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...is chemistry?

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{\an1}From killer snails...

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MANDEË HOLFORD:Just when you think you've heard
of everything,

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{\an1}nature will surprise you.

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POGUE:
...and exploding glass

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{\an1}to the price a pepper-eating
Pogue pays.

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{\an1}There's got to be some easier
way to learn about molecules.

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♪

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We'll dig into
the surprising way

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{\an1}different elements combine
together and blow apart.

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(explosion)

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In this hour,

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{\an1}we swing from the
molecular chains

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{\an1}and surf the atomic webs
that give some materials

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{\an7}unique abilities.

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Ow...

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{\an1}The moldable molasses
of molten glass.

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(laughing):
Come on!

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{\an1}The built-in boing of rubber.

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{\an1}The G-forces are indescribable.

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{\an1}And the menagerie
of modern plastics

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{\an8}that these days
is both a miracle...

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Oh!

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...And a menace.

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{\an1}People want to do
the right thing,

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{\an1}but it's reallydifficult

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{\an1}to know exactly what to do.

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POGUE:
"Beyond the Elements:
Indestructible"--

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{\an1}right now, on "NOVA."

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♪

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♪

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{\an8}♪

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{\an8}POGUE:
Ah, the periodic table--

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{\an7}the "Who's Who" of atoms!

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{\an7}The stuff everything is made of

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{\an7}with familiar names like
hydrogen,

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{\an7}oxygen, carbon, and iron.

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{\an1}But what if every substance
were made

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{\an1}of just one kind of atom,
just one kind of element?

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(baby crying)

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{\an1}What if a human...

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{\an1}were made only of carbon?

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(baby crying)

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What if water...

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{\an1}were made only of hydrogen?

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{\an1}(terrified screams)

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{\an1}(loud thud, people groaning)

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{\an1}And what if salt...

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{\an1}were made only of
poisonous chlorine?

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(gas hissing)

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(groans)

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{\an7}Luckily, nearly all elements
like to stick together.

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{\an7}It's through the combination
of different elements

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{\an1}that our world exists.

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{\an1}And we've made it an even richer
place by learning to harness,

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{\an1}and even make those
combinations,

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{\an1}to create new materials that
have shaped our modern world,

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{\an1}such as rubber, or plastic--

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{\an1}materials we've come
to depend on

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{\an1}but that sometimes come

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with difficult
environmental downsides.

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♪

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{\an8}But let's start
with one of the oldest

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{\an8}and most chemically interesting.

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{\an7}Look at the buildings in any
city today

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and you'll see--
or see through--

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{\an1}one of the signature materials
of our times:

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Glass.

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♪

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{\an1}The Corning Museum of Glass
in Corning, New York,

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{\an1}is home to an internationally
famous collection of glass,

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{\an1}with examples that range
from antiquity

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{\an1}to contemporary art.

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♪

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{\an1}From the functional...

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{\an1}to the fantastic.

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♪

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{\an1}The museum also runs

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{\an1}demonstrations of glassblowing.

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{\an8}PRESENTER:
She's applying glass color
to that molten glass.

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{\an7}By holding it to the ground,

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{\an7}gravity takes hold and she gets
that beautiful ruffled edge.

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{\an8}POGUE:
Some include opportunities

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{\an7}for novices like me

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{\an7}to get into the act.

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{\an7}ERIC MEEK:We're going to bemaking something

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{\an7}we call a Roman bottle.

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{\an8}Good, keep going,

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{\an8}keep going...

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{\an8}all right, stop.

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{\an8}POGUE:
The kind of glass I'm working
with is the most common sort,

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{\an8}soda lime glass,

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{\an1}the stuff of windows, drinking
glasses, and glass bottles.

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MEEK:
Give the pipe a tap...

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(tap)

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POGUE:
Whoo-hoo!

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{\an1}I am good at this.

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Eric Meek,

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{\an1}one of the hot glass
program managers,

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{\an1}breaks down the ingredients
in soda lime glass for me.

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{\an1}So these are the raw materials

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{\an1}that we use to make glass.

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{\an1}The first main ingredientis silica sand.

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{\an1}You can see this is a beautifulwhite, pure silica sand.

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{\an1}This will make really nice,clear glass for us.

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POGUE:
Silica is a network
of silicon and oxygen atoms,

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{\an1}where each silicon atom
shares electrons

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{\an1}with neighboring oxygens,

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{\an7}in what are called
covalent bonds.

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{\an7}To get this to meltat a lower temperature,

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{\an7}we add soda ash,so that's sodium carbonate.

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{\an8}POGUE:
Sodium carbonate--

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{\an7}two sodiums electrically
attracted to three oxygens

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{\an7}sharing electrons
with a carbon atom.

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{\an7}If we melted pure silica

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{\an7}it would melt nearly at4,000 degrees.

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{\an7}If you add soda ash, it dropsthe melting temperature

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{\an7}down to around 2,000 degreesFahrenheit.

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So easier for us
to bring about.

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Easier for usto bring about.

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And then the finalingredient over here

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is crushed limestone,or calcium carbonate.

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{\an8}POGUE:
Like sodium carbonate...

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{\an8}(billiards break
clattering sound)

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{\an7}but with a calcium instead.

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{\an7}Calcium carbonatewill help

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{\an7}to stabilize the glassover time.
Wow!

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And you just sort of
mix that up in a pot.

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Yup.
And put it over
a medium flame and...

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(chuckles)It's that easy.

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You mix these together,put it in a crucible,

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melt it at about 2,000degrees and you have glass.

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POGUE:
At high temperatures,

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{\an1}all those powdery ingredients
melt together

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{\an1}to form a viscous liquid
that cools into glass.

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{\an1}But there's more to the story.

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{\an7}Most solids are crystalline,
like frozen water,

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{\an1}the ice in your glass.

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{\an1}In ice, the water molecules are
arranged in a regular pattern.

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{\an1}If we heat it to its melting
point,

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{\an1}ice quickly turns to liquid,

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{\an1}with water molecules sliding
past each other.

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And then,
if we drop the temperature,

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{\an1}the water refreezes

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{\an1}and the regular crystalline
structure of ice returns.

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{\an1}Silica sand, the primary
ingredient in common glass,

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{\an1}typically also has a regular
crystalline structure.

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{\an1}As you heat it up, it too will
melt just like ice does,

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{\an1}more or less all at once
transitioning

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{\an1}from a solid to a liquid,
with the network of silicon

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{\an1}and oxygen atoms sliding
around chaotically.

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{\an1}But this is where glass
gets weird.

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{\an1}When you cool our liquid silica
down,

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{\an1}it doesn't find its way back
into a crystalline structure.

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{\an1}Instead, it becomes an
increasingly viscous liquid

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{\an1}with jumbled rings of atoms.

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{\an1}When it finally cools down
enough,

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{\an1}that warped irregular structure
becomes locked in place

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{\an1}into what's called
an amorphous solid.

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{\an1}The range of temperatures in
which glass remains

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{\an1}a viscous, goopy liquid
that we can manipulate

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is one reasonit's such an important material,

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{\an1}and has made possible the
amazing art of glassblowing.

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{\an1}When most of us talk about
glass,

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{\an1}we mean silica-based glass,

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ordinary glass.

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{\an1}But glass is also the term
scientists use

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{\an1}for any material that exists as
an amorphous solid,

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materials that,
unlike a crystal,

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{\an1}have an irregular structure,

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and when heated
pass through a phase

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{\an1}that's not exactly liquid
and not exactly solid.

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{\an1}A phase I call... gooey.

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{\an1}So glasscomes in many forms.

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POGUE:
Eric Goldschmidt,

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00:08:55,500 --> 00:08:57,133
a flame worker,

199
00:08:57,166 --> 00:09:00,333
demonstrates that glass doesn't
have to be, well, glass,

200
00:09:00,366 --> 00:09:02,466
{\an1}using a piece of hard candy.

201
00:09:02,500 --> 00:09:05,966
{\an1}And it actually actsa lot like glass

202
00:09:06,000 --> 00:09:09,166
{\an1}that we use out of ourfurnaces here.

203
00:09:09,200 --> 00:09:11,200
{\an1}So I'm softening thismaterial with some heat,

204
00:09:11,233 --> 00:09:13,300
{\an1}getting those atomsmoving around,

205
00:09:13,333 --> 00:09:16,066
{\an1}and it simply will neverhave the opportunity

206
00:09:16,100 --> 00:09:18,266
to come back to
a crystalline network.

207
00:09:18,300 --> 00:09:19,866
{\an1}So we can soften it
a little bit.

208
00:09:19,900 --> 00:09:22,000
{\an1}Start to inflate it.

209
00:09:22,033 --> 00:09:23,633
Start to inflate it?

210
00:09:23,666 --> 00:09:26,933
(laughs)

211
00:09:26,966 --> 00:09:28,400
Come on!

212
00:09:28,433 --> 00:09:33,333
{\an1}Dude, you're making a Roman
bottle out of a Jolly Rancher!

213
00:09:33,366 --> 00:09:36,466
{\an1}In theory, it can be shapedinto just about anything

214
00:09:36,500 --> 00:09:39,133
{\an1}because of its abilityto sort of transition

215
00:09:39,166 --> 00:09:41,533
{\an1}from really fluid to fairly,

216
00:09:41,566 --> 00:09:42,733
{\an1}fairly rigid.

217
00:09:42,766 --> 00:09:44,500
Would this still taste
like candy?

218
00:09:44,533 --> 00:09:45,666
I don't think

219
00:09:45,700 --> 00:09:47,066
we've cookedthe sweetness out of it.
(laughs)

220
00:09:47,100 --> 00:09:48,166
Is it too hot?

221
00:09:48,200 --> 00:09:49,366
It should be cool enoughto touch.
(laughs)

222
00:09:49,400 --> 00:09:50,533
Excuse me.

223
00:09:50,566 --> 00:09:53,900
My gosh, I feel like
I'm eating the wrapper.

224
00:09:53,933 --> 00:09:56,133
♪

225
00:09:56,166 --> 00:09:59,633
I've never had candy that light
and flaky.

226
00:09:59,666 --> 00:10:01,433
And I don't think I'veever had anybody

227
00:10:01,466 --> 00:10:04,633
eat a piece of glassthat I've inflated either.
(laughs)

228
00:10:06,633 --> 00:10:07,933
POGUE:This is gorgeous.

229
00:10:07,966 --> 00:10:09,433
This is, this is clearly goingto be worth something.

230
00:10:09,466 --> 00:10:10,466
MEEK:
Straight out.

231
00:10:10,500 --> 00:10:11,633
Okay.
Yup, there you go.

232
00:10:11,666 --> 00:10:13,833
Maybe if I stop talkingand kept working.

233
00:10:13,866 --> 00:10:17,300
{\an1}There's an underappreciated
aspect of glassblowing

234
00:10:17,333 --> 00:10:20,000
{\an1}that I learned about firsthand.

235
00:10:20,033 --> 00:10:21,966
{\an1}Oh ho!
There we go,
comes right off.

236
00:10:22,000 --> 00:10:24,833
POGUE:After you shape a piece of glass
while it's hot,

237
00:10:24,866 --> 00:10:26,400
{\an1}it has to cool slowly,

238
00:10:26,433 --> 00:10:29,500
{\an1}in an annealing oven

239
00:10:29,533 --> 00:10:32,066
{\an1}that gradually ramps
down the temperature.

240
00:10:32,100 --> 00:10:36,066
{\an1}For something this size,
it takes about 12 hours.

241
00:10:36,100 --> 00:10:37,400
{\an7}Otherwise differences
in thickness

242
00:10:37,433 --> 00:10:39,400
{\an7}mean differences in cooling,

243
00:10:39,433 --> 00:10:41,400
{\an7}leading to stresses...
(glass breaking)

244
00:10:41,433 --> 00:10:44,800
{\an7}That can cause the piece
to crack.

245
00:10:44,833 --> 00:10:49,366
{\an1}But what happens if you cool
some glass really fast?

246
00:10:49,400 --> 00:10:54,800
♪

247
00:10:54,833 --> 00:10:58,000
{\an7}Then, you get these:
Prince Rupert's drops,

248
00:10:58,033 --> 00:11:00,700
{\an7}named for Prince Rupert
of the Rhine,

249
00:11:00,733 --> 00:11:06,466
{\an7}who brought them to England in1660 as a scientific curiosity.

250
00:11:06,500 --> 00:11:08,000
MEEK:
So I'm going to have you

251
00:11:08,033 --> 00:11:10,533
take this hammerand try to break this drop.

252
00:11:10,566 --> 00:11:13,033
Are you nuts,
it's glass?

253
00:11:13,066 --> 00:11:15,900
All right, so just grab itdown here by the tail,

254
00:11:15,933 --> 00:11:18,433
All right, and set it downthere on the table,

255
00:11:18,466 --> 00:11:20,333
and just make sure you hit,

256
00:11:20,366 --> 00:11:22,533
hit the thick end.
Just shatter it?

257
00:11:22,566 --> 00:11:24,966
{\an8}Yup.

258
00:11:25,000 --> 00:11:26,433
(clanging)

259
00:11:26,466 --> 00:11:28,566
Come on.(Meek chuckling)

260
00:11:28,600 --> 00:11:30,933
No!

261
00:11:30,966 --> 00:11:32,966
(hammering)

262
00:11:34,433 --> 00:11:38,066
{\an1}Wow... I broke your table.

263
00:11:38,100 --> 00:11:39,533
That's insane.

264
00:11:39,566 --> 00:11:42,200
{\an1}We've established that this
glass is indestructible.

265
00:11:42,233 --> 00:11:43,400
{\an1}Congratulations.

266
00:11:43,433 --> 00:11:45,900
{\an1}We have, but there is
an Achilles' heel.

267
00:11:45,933 --> 00:11:47,666
{\an1}There is a way to break this.

268
00:11:47,700 --> 00:11:51,700
POGUE:
Considering this glass
just dented a steel table,

269
00:11:51,733 --> 00:11:53,033
{\an1}I'm... skeptical.

270
00:11:53,066 --> 00:11:55,033
MEEK:
So snap it down
in the tail.

271
00:11:55,066 --> 00:11:57,133
This is me,

272
00:11:57,166 --> 00:11:58,300
trying to snapoff the tail

273
00:11:58,333 --> 00:11:59,766
of thisunbreakable glass.

274
00:12:01,300 --> 00:12:02,533
(glass breaking)

275
00:12:02,566 --> 00:12:04,800
{\an1}(explosion echoes)

276
00:12:04,833 --> 00:12:07,666
♪

277
00:12:07,700 --> 00:12:08,833
What?
(Meek chuckling)

278
00:12:08,866 --> 00:12:10,466
Where'd it go?

279
00:12:10,500 --> 00:12:12,266
It's, it's gone!

280
00:12:12,300 --> 00:12:14,033
{\an1}What just happened?

281
00:12:14,066 --> 00:12:16,866
{\an1}Well, let's rewind a little...

282
00:12:16,900 --> 00:12:19,433
(rewind sound)

283
00:12:20,066 --> 00:12:21,633
{\an1}...to the key moment.

284
00:12:21,666 --> 00:12:25,866
{\an1}When the drop of hot glass
enters the cold water...

285
00:12:25,900 --> 00:12:28,000
{\an1}(molten glass bubbling)

286
00:12:28,033 --> 00:12:31,366
{\an7}the outside of the glass
immediately cools

287
00:12:31,400 --> 00:12:32,966
{\an7}and locks into shape,

288
00:12:33,000 --> 00:12:38,466
{\an7}but the inside cools more
slowly, gradually contracting,

289
00:12:38,500 --> 00:12:42,033
{\an7}trying to pull in the rigid
outside glass,

290
00:12:42,066 --> 00:12:44,533
{\an7}creating a tremendous amount
of stress,

291
00:12:44,566 --> 00:12:47,433
{\an7}placing the outer layer
under compression.

292
00:12:48,766 --> 00:12:50,433
{\an7}MEEK:A lot of materialsunder compression

293
00:12:50,466 --> 00:12:52,500
are very strong,
including glass.

294
00:12:52,533 --> 00:12:57,200
{\an8}POGUE:
So strong, you can't break it
with a hammer.

295
00:12:57,233 --> 00:12:58,466
♪

296
00:12:58,500 --> 00:13:01,333
But there's an Achilles... tail.

297
00:13:01,366 --> 00:13:03,833
{\an1}Because that part is so thin,

298
00:13:03,866 --> 00:13:07,933
{\an1}when it enters the water,it cools just about all at once.

299
00:13:07,966 --> 00:13:12,533
{\an7}No compression effect,
no super-strength,

300
00:13:12,566 --> 00:13:14,900
{\an7}I can break it with my hands.

301
00:13:14,933 --> 00:13:16,000
(glass shatters)

302
00:13:16,033 --> 00:13:18,966
{\an7}And that surface fracture
races through

303
00:13:19,000 --> 00:13:21,466
{\an8}the rest of the
compressed material.

304
00:13:21,500 --> 00:13:23,166
{\an8}MEEK:
Once that compressive layer

305
00:13:23,200 --> 00:13:25,866
is compromised,there's so much energy in there,

306
00:13:25,900 --> 00:13:27,866
the whole thing will crack.

307
00:13:27,900 --> 00:13:29,100
(glass shatters)

308
00:13:29,133 --> 00:13:30,466
POGUE:
Ka-blammo!

309
00:13:30,500 --> 00:13:33,333
{\an1}Total drop destruction!

310
00:13:33,366 --> 00:13:35,533
Turns out,
the surprising strength

311
00:13:35,566 --> 00:13:36,933
{\an1}of a Prince Rupert's drop

312
00:13:36,966 --> 00:13:41,366
{\an1}plays a role in how we make
glass today.

313
00:13:41,400 --> 00:13:43,433
{\an1}Manufacturers take advantage

314
00:13:43,466 --> 00:13:45,600
of the strength
of glass under compression,

315
00:13:45,633 --> 00:13:50,033
{\an1}to make a special kind
called tempered glass.

316
00:13:50,066 --> 00:13:52,966
{\an1}So this is a piece of commercial
tempered glass,

317
00:13:53,000 --> 00:13:54,666
{\an1}and rather than being cooled

318
00:13:54,700 --> 00:13:56,200
{\an1}with water,this one is just cooled

319
00:13:56,233 --> 00:13:57,566
{\an1}with jets of airon the surface.

320
00:13:57,600 --> 00:14:01,500
{\an1}The jets of air sort of make
the skin of the glass rigid,

321
00:14:01,533 --> 00:14:03,800
and stiffens
the surface of the glass.

322
00:14:03,833 --> 00:14:05,533
{\an1}The core of this cross-section

323
00:14:05,566 --> 00:14:07,066
{\an1}is left to cool a little bit
more slowly,

324
00:14:07,100 --> 00:14:08,800
{\an1}and so it pulls away from the
surface

325
00:14:08,833 --> 00:14:10,800
{\an1}and that creates a compressive
layer on the surface.

326
00:14:10,833 --> 00:14:13,166
POGUE:
So it's sort of
compressing itself

327
00:14:13,200 --> 00:14:14,166
from the inside?

328
00:14:14,200 --> 00:14:15,566
From the inside, exactly.

329
00:14:15,600 --> 00:14:19,533
{\an7}So then, what is this, like
Prince Rupert's sidewalk?

330
00:14:19,566 --> 00:14:22,833
{\an7}It may seem counterintuitive...

331
00:14:22,866 --> 00:14:26,233
{\an7}Every cell in my body is saying
this is a bad idea.

332
00:14:26,266 --> 00:14:29,466
{\an7}But by cooling the glass to
create compressive stress,

333
00:14:29,500 --> 00:14:32,266
{\an7}generally more than 10,000
pounds per square inch,

334
00:14:32,300 --> 00:14:36,433
{\an7}it becomes physically stronger--
I can walk...

335
00:14:36,466 --> 00:14:38,633
(groans warily)

336
00:14:38,666 --> 00:14:41,800
Even jump on this tempered piecethat's about a half-inch thick.

337
00:14:41,833 --> 00:14:43,666
Oh, my gosh!(Meek chuckles)

338
00:14:43,700 --> 00:14:45,633
(shouts)(Meek laughs)

339
00:14:45,666 --> 00:14:47,733
(laughing):
What?

340
00:14:47,766 --> 00:14:50,033
{\an1}They could make diving boards
out of this stuff.

341
00:14:52,000 --> 00:14:53,966
{\an8}(laughing):
Oh man!

342
00:14:54,000 --> 00:14:58,133
♪

343
00:14:58,166 --> 00:15:00,433
Even pouring molten glass on it

344
00:15:00,466 --> 00:15:03,966
{\an1}doesn't make it shatter
immediately,

345
00:15:04,000 --> 00:15:06,400
{\an1}but give it a minute...

346
00:15:06,433 --> 00:15:08,533
{\an8}That's some
strong glass.It is.

347
00:15:08,566 --> 00:15:11,600
{\an8}POGUE:
Or four...

348
00:15:14,700 --> 00:15:16,900
{\an8}(glass shatters)

349
00:15:20,266 --> 00:15:21,566
{\an8}POGUE:
Oh man, that was cool!

350
00:15:21,600 --> 00:15:23,266
{\an1}It was like poof!

351
00:15:23,300 --> 00:15:27,233
{\an7}The molten glass finally
compromised the surface.

352
00:15:27,266 --> 00:15:30,633
{\an1}(glass shattering)
And all that built-in stress

353
00:15:30,666 --> 00:15:32,400
{\an1}broke up the entire sheet.

354
00:15:32,433 --> 00:15:34,466
{\an1}(glass shattering)

355
00:15:34,500 --> 00:15:38,000
{\an1}But the remaining shards
are relatively safe.

356
00:15:38,033 --> 00:15:39,766
MEEK:
Because of that tension,

357
00:15:39,800 --> 00:15:40,700
when it does break,

358
00:15:40,733 --> 00:15:42,166
it breaks
all the way out

359
00:15:42,200 --> 00:15:43,833
{\an1}to the very edge and it all
breaks into these little bits.

360
00:15:43,866 --> 00:15:45,366
They make these
nice little cubes

361
00:15:45,400 --> 00:15:48,533
that aren't nearly as dangerousas a big, broken shard of glass.

362
00:15:52,300 --> 00:15:54,300
POGUE:
The miracle of glass

363
00:15:54,333 --> 00:15:58,166
{\an7}is made possible in part
by the element silicon,

364
00:15:58,200 --> 00:16:01,200
{\an7}the second most-common element
in the earth's crust

365
00:16:01,233 --> 00:16:02,666
{\an8}after oxygen.

366
00:16:02,700 --> 00:16:08,166
{\an8}Silicon atoms have 14 electrons
arranged in three shells.

367
00:16:08,200 --> 00:16:11,400
{\an8}Because the outermost shell has
four electrons,

368
00:16:11,433 --> 00:16:15,200
{\an8}silicon can share those to form
up to four bonds

369
00:16:15,233 --> 00:16:17,200
{\an7}with other atoms.

370
00:16:17,233 --> 00:16:19,366
{\an7}But one thing that it doesn't
do well

371
00:16:19,400 --> 00:16:22,733
{\an7}is form a chain with other
silicon atoms,

372
00:16:22,766 --> 00:16:26,100
{\an7}to create a compound
with a silicon backbone.

373
00:16:26,133 --> 00:16:28,366
{\an7}It's just too reactive.

374
00:16:28,400 --> 00:16:31,966
{\an8}In water,the backbone easily falls apart.

375
00:16:34,000 --> 00:16:36,333
{\an7}The element with the best
ability to do that

376
00:16:36,366 --> 00:16:38,566
{\an7}sits just above silicon.

377
00:16:39,766 --> 00:16:43,166
{\an7}Carbon can also form up to four
bonds with other atoms

378
00:16:43,200 --> 00:16:45,933
{\an8}but luckily,
it can also form strong bonds

379
00:16:45,966 --> 00:16:48,033
{\an7}with other carbon atoms.

380
00:16:48,066 --> 00:16:52,666
{\an7}The result is not only you and
me, and all life on Earth,

381
00:16:52,700 --> 00:16:56,066
{\an7}but also a plethora of other
molecules and materials

382
00:16:56,100 --> 00:16:57,300
{\an7}that shape our lives

383
00:16:57,333 --> 00:17:00,866
{\an7}and can even put a bounce
in your step.

384
00:17:00,900 --> 00:17:02,533
First up?

385
00:17:02,566 --> 00:17:03,600
Rubber!

386
00:17:03,633 --> 00:17:05,066
(engine running)

387
00:17:05,100 --> 00:17:07,566
It turns out that more than half
of the world's rubber

388
00:17:07,600 --> 00:17:10,766
{\an1}ends up wrapped around
the wheels of vehicles--

389
00:17:10,800 --> 00:17:13,866
{\an1}motorcycles, trucks, and cars.

390
00:17:13,900 --> 00:17:15,200
♪

391
00:17:15,233 --> 00:17:18,833
{\an1}So I've come to a place that's
rolling in it...

392
00:17:18,866 --> 00:17:21,500
{\an1}(race car engines roar)

393
00:17:21,533 --> 00:17:24,333
{\an1}The Indianapolis Motor Speedway.

394
00:17:26,266 --> 00:17:27,300
{\an1}It's 11 days away

395
00:17:27,333 --> 00:17:29,000
{\an1}from the running of one of the
most

396
00:17:29,033 --> 00:17:30,800
{\an1}famous car races in the world,

397
00:17:30,833 --> 00:17:33,833
the Indy 500.

398
00:17:33,866 --> 00:17:37,000
{\an1}The competing teams are here,
doing practice runs.

399
00:17:42,833 --> 00:17:45,766
{\an1}And some end better than others.

400
00:17:45,800 --> 00:17:48,466
{\an1}(car skids and crashes)

401
00:17:50,233 --> 00:17:53,566
{\an1}Before the teams hit the track,

402
00:17:53,600 --> 00:17:56,266
{\an1}some fortunate fans get a taste
of the race.

403
00:17:56,300 --> 00:18:00,933
They get to ride in a specially
adapted two-seater Indy Car...

404
00:18:00,966 --> 00:18:06,633
{\an1}At the wheel, the legendary
champion, Mario Andretti.

405
00:18:06,666 --> 00:18:08,200
{\an1}He's one of the most successful

406
00:18:08,233 --> 00:18:12,100
{\an1}American drivers in the history
of the sport.

407
00:18:12,133 --> 00:18:13,100
{\an1}He's the only pro ever

408
00:18:13,133 --> 00:18:15,666
{\an1}to win the Indianapolis 500,

409
00:18:15,700 --> 00:18:20,866
{\an1}the Daytona 500, and the Formula
One World Championship.

410
00:18:22,400 --> 00:18:27,000
♪

411
00:18:27,033 --> 00:18:30,000
{\an1}And now, it's my turn...

412
00:18:30,033 --> 00:18:37,000
♪

413
00:18:37,033 --> 00:18:38,900
Imagine riding
a roller coaster...

414
00:18:38,933 --> 00:18:42,066
{\an1}at over 180 miles an hour,

415
00:18:42,100 --> 00:18:43,500
with no rails...

416
00:18:43,533 --> 00:18:46,666
{\an1}flying around the curves,
while wondering

417
00:18:46,700 --> 00:18:48,966
why we're not
smashing into the wall.

418
00:18:49,000 --> 00:18:52,400
♪

419
00:18:52,433 --> 00:18:53,866
{\an1}I've had enough after
a couple of laps.

420
00:18:53,900 --> 00:18:58,933
{\an1}How do these drivers
do 200 of 'em?

421
00:18:58,966 --> 00:19:02,766
♪

422
00:19:08,800 --> 00:19:12,800
{\an1}Oh man, the G forces
are just indescribable.

423
00:19:12,833 --> 00:19:15,433
{\an1}I mean you're pressed against
the side

424
00:19:15,466 --> 00:19:17,800
and then pressed
against the back.

425
00:19:17,833 --> 00:19:19,933
{\an1}And when he takes the curves,

426
00:19:19,966 --> 00:19:24,066
{\an1}I mean there's a concrete wall
coming at you, just...

427
00:19:24,100 --> 00:19:25,633
(engine revs)
♪

428
00:19:25,666 --> 00:19:29,166
So what's the secret ingredient
to staying alive out there?

429
00:19:29,200 --> 00:19:30,533
To find out,

430
00:19:30,566 --> 00:19:33,233
{\an1}I head to the garage that
supplies the tires

431
00:19:33,266 --> 00:19:35,933
{\an1}in the weeks leading up
to the Indy 500.

432
00:19:35,966 --> 00:19:37,333
{\an1}(compressed air hissing)

433
00:19:37,366 --> 00:19:39,400
{\an1}In 2019, each team received

434
00:19:39,433 --> 00:19:40,800
36 sets of tires

435
00:19:40,833 --> 00:19:48,000
{\an1}for practice, qualifying, and
the race-- 6,000 tires in all.

436
00:19:48,033 --> 00:19:50,133
{\an1}It's also a chance to talk

437
00:19:50,166 --> 00:19:52,133
{\an1}to the expert himself.

438
00:19:52,166 --> 00:19:54,266
{\an1}What I was surprised at most was

439
00:19:54,300 --> 00:19:57,300
{\an1}the lateral forces obviously,
as a layman.

440
00:19:57,333 --> 00:20:00,400
So is it, is it
the rubber that's keeping us

441
00:20:00,433 --> 00:20:02,033
from flying
into that wall?

442
00:20:02,066 --> 00:20:03,600
{\an7}That it- that's what it is.

443
00:20:03,633 --> 00:20:05,500
{\an7}That's, the tires are obviously

444
00:20:05,533 --> 00:20:08,233
{\an7}the most important aspect
of the race car.

445
00:20:08,266 --> 00:20:12,066
{\an7}These are the babiesyou want to kiss after a run.
(laughs)

446
00:20:12,100 --> 00:20:17,366
POGUE:
At speeds up to 230 miles
an hour, a driver experiences

447
00:20:17,400 --> 00:20:20,666
{\an1}about 5Gs of force
during the turns.

448
00:20:20,700 --> 00:20:22,766
{\an1}That's more than what an
astronaut experiences

449
00:20:22,800 --> 00:20:25,400
{\an1}during a space launch.

450
00:20:25,433 --> 00:20:27,400
{\an1}So you know the tires
take a beating.

451
00:20:27,433 --> 00:20:28,700
{\an1}Do you know enough about

452
00:20:28,733 --> 00:20:31,866
the chemistry to know
what kinds of things

453
00:20:31,900 --> 00:20:33,266
they can do
to the compounds?

454
00:20:33,300 --> 00:20:36,900
{\an1}Like what sorts of things
do they add?

455
00:20:36,933 --> 00:20:39,533
{\an1}If they would tell me that,they would have to kill me.

456
00:20:39,566 --> 00:20:41,566
(laughs)

457
00:20:41,600 --> 00:20:45,000
Hopefully,
that's not a blanket policy

458
00:20:45,033 --> 00:20:50,000
{\an1}because I've come to Akron,Ohio, looking for some answers.

459
00:20:50,033 --> 00:20:52,933
{\an1}Harvey Firestone founded
the Firestone Tire

460
00:20:52,966 --> 00:20:56,300
{\an1}and Rubber company here in 1900.

461
00:20:56,333 --> 00:21:00,200
{\an1}Bridgestone Corporation
bought it in 1988,

462
00:21:00,233 --> 00:21:03,333
{\an1}becoming Bridgestone/Firestone.

463
00:21:03,366 --> 00:21:06,266
{\an1}This is one of its research
facilities.

464
00:21:06,300 --> 00:21:09,900
And Laura Kocsis
is one of its scientists.

465
00:21:09,933 --> 00:21:14,000
{\an1}According to her,
it all starts with this.

466
00:21:14,033 --> 00:21:15,500
{\an1}I got to say,this feels rubbery.

467
00:21:15,533 --> 00:21:19,366
{\an1}And it... oh, man,
it's also stinky!

468
00:21:19,400 --> 00:21:20,966
{\an1}Yup, so that's natural rubber.

469
00:21:21,000 --> 00:21:22,933
{\an1}Oh, this is what comesout of the tree?

470
00:21:22,966 --> 00:21:24,666
Yup, so it comes out
of the tree, we process it,

471
00:21:24,700 --> 00:21:26,633
{\an1}and it turns it into what you
have in your hands right now.

472
00:21:26,666 --> 00:21:29,700
{\an1}It becomes this.
Yes.

473
00:21:29,733 --> 00:21:31,200
♪

474
00:21:31,233 --> 00:21:32,400
{\an1}Natural rubber begins

475
00:21:32,433 --> 00:21:36,300
{\an7}as sticky, runny,
white liquid called latex.

476
00:21:36,333 --> 00:21:41,600
{\an1}It's found in more than 2,000
plants, including dandelions,

477
00:21:41,633 --> 00:21:43,933
{\an1}but most of the world's
natural rubber

478
00:21:43,966 --> 00:21:47,300
{\an1}comes from trees like these,

479
00:21:47,333 --> 00:21:51,400
{\an1}the Hevea brasiliensis,better known as the rubber tree.

480
00:21:51,433 --> 00:21:55,566
{\an1}Natural latex is about 55% water

481
00:21:55,600 --> 00:21:58,033
with particles
of rubber suspended in it.

482
00:21:58,066 --> 00:22:01,466
{\an1}And if you could zoom into one
of the particles...

483
00:22:01,500 --> 00:22:04,933
{\an1}you'd see it's like
a tangled bunch of spaghetti.

484
00:22:04,966 --> 00:22:10,433
{\an1}Each noodle is a long molecular
chain called a polymer.

485
00:22:10,466 --> 00:22:12,333
{\an7}To get to a polymer,
you start with monomers,

486
00:22:12,366 --> 00:22:14,600
{\an7}which is one chemical unit,
and that's represented by

487
00:22:14,633 --> 00:22:15,866
{\an7}these paperclips here.

488
00:22:15,900 --> 00:22:17,766
{\an7}This here isone chemical unit?

489
00:22:17,800 --> 00:22:19,400
Yup, consider that
one chemical unit.

490
00:22:19,433 --> 00:22:21,133
Meaning what--a molecule?

491
00:22:21,166 --> 00:22:22,466
Yup, one molecule.

492
00:22:22,500 --> 00:22:23,966
So for natural rubber,what,

493
00:22:24,000 --> 00:22:25,566
what molecule
are we talking about?

494
00:22:25,600 --> 00:22:27,000
So we're talking
about isoprene.

495
00:22:27,033 --> 00:22:28,533
Isoprene, okay.
Yes.

496
00:22:28,566 --> 00:22:31,666
{\an3}Here's what isoprene looks like:

497
00:22:31,700 --> 00:22:35,500
{\an1}it's a molecule with five
carbons bonded to each other

498
00:22:35,533 --> 00:22:37,800
{\an1}and to eight hydrogens.

499
00:22:37,833 --> 00:22:41,500
{\an1}In natural rubber,
isoprenes are bonded together,

500
00:22:41,533 --> 00:22:45,133
{\an1}one after another,
to make a chain-- a polymer--

501
00:22:45,166 --> 00:22:49,800
{\an1}just like the chain of paper
clips Laura showed me.

502
00:22:49,833 --> 00:22:51,366
Once you get to tens of
thousands of these units

503
00:22:51,400 --> 00:22:53,366
linked together,
you end up with natural rubber.

504
00:22:53,400 --> 00:22:54,933
Oh, tens of thousands?
Yup.

505
00:22:54,966 --> 00:22:55,966
{\an3}Okay.
Tens of thousands.

506
00:22:56,000 --> 00:22:59,033
POGUE:
In their natural state,

507
00:22:59,066 --> 00:23:02,300
{\an1}the rubber polymer chains can
become easily entangled

508
00:23:02,333 --> 00:23:04,233
as they coil up.

509
00:23:04,266 --> 00:23:06,100
{\an1}But when you stretch them out,

510
00:23:06,133 --> 00:23:08,033
{\an1}the chains straighten out

511
00:23:08,066 --> 00:23:11,433
{\an1}and align themselves in the
direction of the stretch.

512
00:23:11,466 --> 00:23:12,833
Let them go,

513
00:23:12,866 --> 00:23:16,666
{\an1}and the molecules return back
to their coiled-up states,

514
00:23:16,700 --> 00:23:19,266
{\an1}giving rubber its signature

515
00:23:19,300 --> 00:23:21,066
"boinginess."

516
00:23:21,100 --> 00:23:23,366
So if it's rubber,it should be a little boingy.

517
00:23:23,400 --> 00:23:24,566
Yup, it's going
to bounce.

518
00:23:24,600 --> 00:23:26,066
Ah!Okay, that's,

519
00:23:26,100 --> 00:23:27,566
that's very boingy.

520
00:23:27,600 --> 00:23:28,966
{\an1}I'm sure here at Bridgestone,

521
00:23:29,000 --> 00:23:30,900
{\an1}you use that as a
chemical property,

522
00:23:30,933 --> 00:23:31,900
the boinginess.

523
00:23:31,933 --> 00:23:33,000
Yes, very technical.

524
00:23:33,033 --> 00:23:34,133
And... oh...

525
00:23:34,166 --> 00:23:36,133
(laughter)
Oh, man.

526
00:23:36,166 --> 00:23:40,100
{\an1}Natural rubber is often an
ingredient in tires,

527
00:23:40,133 --> 00:23:43,533
{\an1}but it's not the only one.

528
00:23:43,566 --> 00:23:45,866
{\an1}Today, many tires include
synthetic rubber,

529
00:23:45,900 --> 00:23:47,933
{\an1}made out of other monomers

530
00:23:47,966 --> 00:23:50,100
{\an1}not found in latex.

531
00:23:50,133 --> 00:23:51,866
♪

532
00:23:51,900 --> 00:23:52,900
POGUE:Oh ho!

533
00:23:52,933 --> 00:23:55,733
I'm sensing more polymers.

534
00:23:55,766 --> 00:23:58,400
{\an3}Yes.
More chains of molecules.

535
00:23:58,433 --> 00:23:59,766
{\an1}What do these represent?

536
00:23:59,800 --> 00:24:01,866
{\an8}So these are different
configurations of

537
00:24:01,900 --> 00:24:04,100
{\an7}polymers that we can make
in our laboratory.

538
00:24:04,133 --> 00:24:06,600
{\an1}Natural rubber is made of only
one type of monomer.

539
00:24:06,633 --> 00:24:08,400
{\an1}Here we can use different types

540
00:24:08,433 --> 00:24:10,666
{\an1}and bring them together with our
chemistry.

541
00:24:10,700 --> 00:24:12,800
And each way of linking themtogether

542
00:24:12,833 --> 00:24:15,866
produces different qualitiesin the tire that will result?

543
00:24:15,900 --> 00:24:18,533
{\an1}Yup, so maybe the amount of
monomer can make a difference

544
00:24:18,566 --> 00:24:20,166
{\an1}in the properties,
how they're configured

545
00:24:20,200 --> 00:24:22,300
{\an1}can make a difference, andthat's basically what we do here

546
00:24:22,333 --> 00:24:24,266
{\an1}is find different ways of
putting them together

547
00:24:24,300 --> 00:24:26,600
{\an1}so that we can achieve the
properties that we want.

548
00:24:26,633 --> 00:24:28,066
{\an1}Wow.

549
00:24:28,100 --> 00:24:32,466
Natural rubber,
synthetic rubber,

550
00:24:32,500 --> 00:24:37,700
{\an1}turns out, there's even more
that goes into tire rubber.

551
00:24:37,733 --> 00:24:40,700
{\an1}Here in the test lab,

552
00:24:40,733 --> 00:24:42,566
{\an1}technicians mix all the
ingredients together.

553
00:24:42,600 --> 00:24:45,833
{\an7}Like carbon black and silica,

554
00:24:45,866 --> 00:24:48,400
{\an7}which reinforce the tire.

555
00:24:48,433 --> 00:24:52,033
{\an7}Another key ingredient
is sulfur,

556
00:24:52,066 --> 00:24:55,700
{\an7}element number 16
on the periodic table.

557
00:24:55,733 --> 00:24:58,200
{\an1}The resulting blob

558
00:24:58,233 --> 00:25:00,533
{\an1}then gets rolled into sheets...

559
00:25:03,900 --> 00:25:07,733
{\an1}cut into squares for testing,

560
00:25:07,766 --> 00:25:09,066
{\an1}and baked at high temperature

561
00:25:09,100 --> 00:25:11,200
{\an1}in a process called
vulcanization.

562
00:25:13,733 --> 00:25:18,133
{\an1}Charles Goodyear discovered
the process in 1839

563
00:25:18,166 --> 00:25:20,033
{\an1}when he accidentally spilled

564
00:25:20,066 --> 00:25:23,200
{\an1}a mixture of rubber and sulfur
on a stove.

565
00:25:23,233 --> 00:25:29,733
{\an1}He named it after Vulcan,
the Roman god of fire.

566
00:25:29,766 --> 00:25:31,066
(bell chimes)

567
00:25:31,100 --> 00:25:32,500
♪

568
00:25:32,533 --> 00:25:35,433
{\an1}Cooking the rubber-sulfur
mixture

569
00:25:35,466 --> 00:25:38,466
{\an7}causes the sulfur
to chemically bond

570
00:25:38,500 --> 00:25:41,466
{\an1}the rubber's polymer chains
to each other,

571
00:25:41,500 --> 00:25:44,800
{\an1}forming crosslinks between them.

572
00:25:44,833 --> 00:25:46,633
♪

573
00:25:46,666 --> 00:25:48,900
{\an1}Bill Niaura, Bridgestone's
Director of Innovation,

574
00:25:48,933 --> 00:25:51,466
{\an1}shows me the result.

575
00:25:51,500 --> 00:25:53,300
{\an1}So this little bowtie,this was cut out of

576
00:25:53,333 --> 00:25:55,500
{\an1}one of those squaresbefore vulcanization.

577
00:25:55,533 --> 00:25:56,933
NIAURA:
It was.

578
00:25:56,966 --> 00:25:59,266
And this is what rubber lookslike after that vulcanization?

579
00:25:59,300 --> 00:26:00,400
Correct.

580
00:26:00,433 --> 00:26:02,366
So, the only differencebetween these two

581
00:26:02,400 --> 00:26:04,266
is this one was super-heatedfor a while.

582
00:26:04,300 --> 00:26:05,600
Correct.All right.

583
00:26:05,633 --> 00:26:08,900
And according to you, somethingproperty-wise has changed?

584
00:26:08,933 --> 00:26:10,200
It has.

585
00:26:10,233 --> 00:26:12,000
Why don't you take
the uncured one and stretch it.

586
00:26:12,033 --> 00:26:13,500
All right, this guy.

587
00:26:13,533 --> 00:26:15,066
Just pull it?

588
00:26:15,100 --> 00:26:16,400
Oh, wow.

589
00:26:16,433 --> 00:26:19,300
What you'll feel are the polymer
chains flowing apart,

590
00:26:19,333 --> 00:26:21,533
{\an1}it's acting like a liquid,
it's viscous.

591
00:26:21,566 --> 00:26:24,100
{\an1}It feels exactly like gum,
stretching gum.

592
00:26:24,133 --> 00:26:26,966
And when you release
the force...

593
00:26:27,000 --> 00:26:29,533
(laughs)
...you'll see that it's flowed
apart and the energy

594
00:26:29,566 --> 00:26:31,600
{\an8}that you put in
has not been recovered

595
00:26:31,633 --> 00:26:34,033
and the piece has been
permanently deformed.

596
00:26:34,066 --> 00:26:35,666
{\an1}I broke your rubber sample.

597
00:26:35,700 --> 00:26:37,166
I'm okay with that.

598
00:26:37,200 --> 00:26:41,233
POGUE:
With all the new ingredients,
our unbaked tire mixture

599
00:26:41,266 --> 00:26:46,200
{\an1}is far less boingy than the
rubber I saw in Laura's lab.

600
00:26:46,233 --> 00:26:48,566
{\an1}When you stretch it,

601
00:26:48,600 --> 00:26:51,933
{\an1}the mixture's loosely coiled
polymer strands

602
00:26:51,966 --> 00:26:55,633
{\an1}slide past each other
and keep on sliding.

603
00:26:55,666 --> 00:26:58,666
{\an1}Only weak interactions holdthe network of strands together,

604
00:26:58,700 --> 00:27:02,966
{\an1}so under stress, it pulls apart.

605
00:27:03,000 --> 00:27:05,766
{\an1}Okay, and then after
vulcanization, same test?

606
00:27:05,800 --> 00:27:07,400
Indeed.

607
00:27:07,433 --> 00:27:12,000
{\an8}Oh, man,
it's much harder to pull.

608
00:27:12,033 --> 00:27:13,300
{\an8}And when you
release the force...

609
00:27:13,333 --> 00:27:14,733
{\an1}Oh!

610
00:27:14,766 --> 00:27:16,366
...you'll see that it's
recovered its original shape,

611
00:27:16,400 --> 00:27:20,000
{\an1}and that's a characteristic
of elasticity.

612
00:27:20,033 --> 00:27:21,633
♪

613
00:27:21,666 --> 00:27:25,266
POGUE:
Stretch out this vulcanized
interconnected web of strands,

614
00:27:25,300 --> 00:27:27,166
{\an1}and instead of ripping apart,

615
00:27:27,200 --> 00:27:30,933
{\an1}the network springs back
to its original shape.

616
00:27:30,966 --> 00:27:32,400
NIAURA:
Right. It's a cross section.

617
00:27:32,433 --> 00:27:34,000
POGUE:
But as Bill shows me,

618
00:27:34,033 --> 00:27:36,300
{\an1}with cross-sections
from different tires,

619
00:27:36,333 --> 00:27:38,900
{\an1}vulcanization doesn't just
connect up

620
00:27:38,933 --> 00:27:40,966
{\an1}individual rubber molecules,

621
00:27:41,000 --> 00:27:46,333
{\an1}it connects up everything
in the whole tire mixture.

622
00:27:46,366 --> 00:27:48,700
{\an1}NIAURA:As we cure the tires,we heat it.

623
00:27:48,733 --> 00:27:50,533
{\an1}That vulcanization reaction
not only cures the rubber

624
00:27:50,566 --> 00:27:51,933
within a compound,

625
00:27:51,966 --> 00:27:53,866
{\an7}it cures across compounds

626
00:27:53,900 --> 00:27:56,600
{\an7}to connect all of that into,
into one unit.

627
00:27:56,633 --> 00:27:59,233
{\an8}In the end,
it's essentially one molecule.

628
00:27:59,266 --> 00:28:00,333
{\an8}The whole tire?
It is.

629
00:28:00,366 --> 00:28:02,366
The whole tireis a molecule?
It is.

630
00:28:02,400 --> 00:28:04,400
(laughing):Well, how is thata molecule?

631
00:28:04,433 --> 00:28:05,733
So a molecule

632
00:28:05,766 --> 00:28:08,266
is a collection of atoms
that are chemically attached.

633
00:28:08,300 --> 00:28:09,300
Yeah.

634
00:28:09,333 --> 00:28:11,633
We've done that
through polymerization,

635
00:28:11,666 --> 00:28:13,166
{\an1}we've attached monomers
to make polymers,

636
00:28:13,200 --> 00:28:14,700
{\an1}and then through vulcanization,

637
00:28:14,733 --> 00:28:18,100
{\an1}we've attached the polymers
to make the finished product.

638
00:28:18,133 --> 00:28:21,233
{\an1}So I guess, therefore,since this is all connected,

639
00:28:21,266 --> 00:28:23,966
{\an1}molecularly linkedto molecularly linked,

640
00:28:24,000 --> 00:28:26,100
{\an1}it is one giant molecule?

641
00:28:26,133 --> 00:28:27,933
It's beautiful.(laughs)

642
00:28:27,966 --> 00:28:29,933
{\an1}(engines roaring)

643
00:28:34,333 --> 00:28:36,966
POGUE:
Now that I know just how much
engineering goes into

644
00:28:37,000 --> 00:28:40,000
{\an1}those giant tire-shaped
molecules,

645
00:28:40,033 --> 00:28:41,933
{\an1}I have a new appreciation

646
00:28:41,966 --> 00:28:44,866
{\an1}for the rubber that keeps us all
on the road.

647
00:28:44,900 --> 00:28:49,733
{\an1}And for the people behind it,
like Cara Adams,

648
00:28:49,766 --> 00:28:52,200
{\an1}director of race tire
engineering and production

649
00:28:52,233 --> 00:28:55,433
{\an1}for Bridgestone/Firestone.

650
00:28:55,466 --> 00:28:59,566
{\an1}She oversees the race tire
operation, including Indy.

651
00:28:59,600 --> 00:29:01,133
♪

652
00:29:01,166 --> 00:29:06,333
Although interviewing her at theoffice turns out to be... tough.

653
00:29:06,366 --> 00:29:08,166
{\an1}One of the things that
you're trying to look at

654
00:29:08,200 --> 00:29:09,800
{\an1}with a race car is aerodynamics.

655
00:29:09,833 --> 00:29:12,600
{\an1}(race car approaching)

656
00:29:12,633 --> 00:29:14,433
{\an1}If you think about a tire,
those are the only

657
00:29:14,466 --> 00:29:17,400
{\an1}point of contact between the
cars and the ground out there.

658
00:29:17,433 --> 00:29:18,566
{\an1}(race car speeding by)

659
00:29:18,600 --> 00:29:20,766
{\an1}That was a very small
four-inch wide rim so...

660
00:29:20,800 --> 00:29:25,200
{\an1}(race car speeding by,
Adams' voice become inaudible)

661
00:29:25,233 --> 00:29:28,666
{\an1}(another race car speeding by)

662
00:29:28,700 --> 00:29:30,500
{\an1}This is what you get for trying
to film at a racetrack.

663
00:29:30,533 --> 00:29:31,700
{\an7}POGUE:Yes, exactly.

664
00:29:31,733 --> 00:29:36,466
{\an1}So we move to a somewhat
quieter place.

665
00:29:36,500 --> 00:29:39,966
We think of car racing
as excitement, and adrenaline,

666
00:29:40,000 --> 00:29:41,200
really cool.

667
00:29:41,233 --> 00:29:43,466
{\an8}How much actual science
is there to it?

668
00:29:43,500 --> 00:29:45,266
{\an7}Well, there's a lot
of science and chemistry

669
00:29:45,300 --> 00:29:47,133
{\an7}and that actually goes in
the tires.

670
00:29:47,166 --> 00:29:48,433
{\an7}So we have engineers
that work with physics

671
00:29:48,466 --> 00:29:50,600
{\an7}to make sure the tiresare strong enough.

672
00:29:50,633 --> 00:29:52,900
{\an7}And then we have people that are
really smart in chemistry,

673
00:29:52,933 --> 00:29:55,600
{\an1}and they are actually ableto design those tread compounds

674
00:29:55,633 --> 00:29:58,066
{\an1}that are running at
240 miles per hour

675
00:29:58,100 --> 00:29:59,333
{\an1}and adhering to the ground.

676
00:29:59,366 --> 00:30:00,566
{\an1}It's really exciting.

677
00:30:00,600 --> 00:30:03,633
{\an1}So are you trying to tell me
that the only thing

678
00:30:03,666 --> 00:30:09,466
{\an1}between Mario and meand certain death is chemistry?

679
00:30:09,500 --> 00:30:11,133
{\an1}Chemistry and physics,absolutely.

680
00:30:11,166 --> 00:30:12,600
{\an1}(laughs)

681
00:30:14,733 --> 00:30:19,533
POGUE:
Both the natural rubber and
synthetic rubber used in tires

682
00:30:19,566 --> 00:30:23,166
{\an1}are elastomers, polymers with
elastic properties.

683
00:30:23,200 --> 00:30:27,400
{\an1}They allow tires to be
both flexible and durable...

684
00:30:27,433 --> 00:30:31,100
{\an1}(loud screeching)

685
00:30:31,133 --> 00:30:32,366
{\an1}...marvels of engineering.

686
00:30:32,400 --> 00:30:35,300
{\an1}But they have their limits.

687
00:30:35,333 --> 00:30:37,900
(loud pop)

688
00:30:37,933 --> 00:30:39,566
♪

689
00:30:39,600 --> 00:30:42,233
So what if you need an elastomer
that can hold it together

690
00:30:42,266 --> 00:30:44,666
{\an1}no matter what you throw at it?

691
00:30:44,700 --> 00:30:49,866
{\an1}Michael Tidd from the company
LINE-X has invited me here,

692
00:30:49,900 --> 00:30:53,000
{\an1}a lift in a back lot inWest Springfield, Massachusetts,

693
00:30:53,033 --> 00:30:57,533
{\an1}to see an elastomer that can be
a protective coating.

694
00:30:57,566 --> 00:30:59,066
The day begins

695
00:30:59,100 --> 00:31:02,733
{\an1}with a tale of two pumpkins.

696
00:31:02,766 --> 00:31:05,233
{\an1}Pumpkins seem like they are
already blessed

697
00:31:05,266 --> 00:31:07,200
{\an1}with a certain degree
of protection.

698
00:31:07,233 --> 00:31:08,766
Nature has provided
a pretty good membrane

699
00:31:08,800 --> 00:31:11,000
{\an1}but I don't... I don't knowif it was in the original design

700
00:31:11,033 --> 00:31:13,333
to drop it from 50 feet.
(laughs)

701
00:31:13,366 --> 00:31:14,766
Well let's doa "scientifical" test.

702
00:31:14,800 --> 00:31:16,400
{\an1}We could always give it a try
and see what happens.

703
00:31:16,433 --> 00:31:17,833
On three, ready?

704
00:31:17,866 --> 00:31:18,933
One, two...One, two...

705
00:31:18,966 --> 00:31:20,066
Three!

706
00:31:22,233 --> 00:31:24,233
{\an8}(David laughing)

707
00:31:25,366 --> 00:31:26,633
POGUE:
Well no surprise here...

708
00:31:30,500 --> 00:31:32,933
(laughing):It's... it's a squash vegetable
and a floor wax.

709
00:31:32,966 --> 00:31:34,333
That was the control

710
00:31:34,366 --> 00:31:38,500
{\an7}of a uncoated pumpkin as youwould find them in nature, yes.

711
00:31:38,533 --> 00:31:40,133
♪

712
00:31:40,166 --> 00:31:42,533
POGUE:
Now it's time for a pumpkin
covered with Michael's

713
00:31:42,566 --> 00:31:45,700
{\an1}protective LINE-X coating.

714
00:31:45,733 --> 00:31:47,733
I have to say, it feels
a little bit like plastic.

715
00:31:47,766 --> 00:31:49,133
It is a lot like plastic.

716
00:31:49,166 --> 00:31:50,866
It has characteristicsof plastic.

717
00:31:50,900 --> 00:31:52,666
{\an1}However, it is an elastomer,

718
00:31:52,700 --> 00:31:54,700
{\an1}which means it could bestretched,

719
00:31:54,733 --> 00:31:56,433
{\an1}but it will return
to its original shape.

720
00:31:56,466 --> 00:32:00,233
{\an1}Uh, let's see if thishas any better effect.

721
00:32:00,266 --> 00:32:02,300
{\an1}One, two, three!

722
00:32:03,900 --> 00:32:05,233
{\an1}(David laughs)

723
00:32:05,266 --> 00:32:09,266
♪

724
00:32:09,300 --> 00:32:10,433
{\an7}The LINE-X-coated pumpkin

725
00:32:10,466 --> 00:32:13,300
{\an7}flexes to absorb the impact

726
00:32:13,333 --> 00:32:16,466
{\an7}then springs back into shape.

727
00:32:16,500 --> 00:32:19,600
{\an1}We try a few more
household objects.

728
00:32:19,633 --> 00:32:22,400
{\an1}This experiment is entitled
"When Pigs Fly".

729
00:32:23,633 --> 00:32:25,100
{\an7}(shatters loudly)

730
00:32:25,133 --> 00:32:28,333
{\an1}Can you guess what will happen
to the egg when we drop it?

731
00:32:28,366 --> 00:32:33,366
{\an8}♪

732
00:32:33,400 --> 00:32:35,400
{\an1}The flower pot's last moments.

733
00:32:35,433 --> 00:32:39,366
♪

734
00:32:39,400 --> 00:32:42,766
{\an1}And I run a few comparisons
myself...

735
00:32:42,800 --> 00:32:50,133
{\an8}♪

736
00:32:50,166 --> 00:32:52,066
(grunts)

737
00:32:53,566 --> 00:33:00,033
{\an8}Finally...
bringing out the big guns.

738
00:33:00,066 --> 00:33:07,266
{\an8}♪

739
00:33:07,300 --> 00:33:08,666
{\an8}No way...

740
00:33:08,700 --> 00:33:10,133
{\an8}(voiceover):
Okay I get it.

741
00:33:10,166 --> 00:33:12,933
{\an7}The stuff is tough.

742
00:33:12,966 --> 00:33:16,900
{\an7}But what's going on inside
that coating?

743
00:33:16,933 --> 00:33:20,200
{\an7}Did the objects survive intact?

744
00:33:20,233 --> 00:33:21,800
(saw whirring)

745
00:33:21,833 --> 00:33:23,600
{\an1}Michael cuts open
our dropped pumpkin

746
00:33:23,633 --> 00:33:26,733
{\an1}to see the state of affairs...

747
00:33:26,766 --> 00:33:29,366
{\an1}(whirring continues)

748
00:33:29,400 --> 00:33:31,000
(whirring stops)

749
00:33:31,033 --> 00:33:34,566
(David laughs)

750
00:33:34,600 --> 00:33:36,100
{\an1}It's pumpkin pudding!

751
00:33:36,133 --> 00:33:37,900
A lot of damage.

752
00:33:37,933 --> 00:33:40,900
So, the pumpkin is gone,but the coating did just fine?

753
00:33:40,933 --> 00:33:42,033
Correct

754
00:33:42,066 --> 00:33:43,866
But when would you care about

755
00:33:43,900 --> 00:33:47,366
not protecting the gutsof something

756
00:33:47,400 --> 00:33:48,533
but the outside is fine?

757
00:33:48,566 --> 00:33:50,600
A lot of times,
we will put it on a membrane,

758
00:33:50,633 --> 00:33:53,100
{\an1}such as a wall or a floor

759
00:33:53,133 --> 00:33:56,966
{\an1}where we're trying to protect
what's on the other side.

760
00:33:57,000 --> 00:33:59,800
POGUE:
Here's a test of that idea.

761
00:33:59,833 --> 00:34:04,133
{\an7}This simulated car bomb
blows down an exterior wall.

762
00:34:04,166 --> 00:34:07,333
(loud explosion)

763
00:34:07,366 --> 00:34:09,000
♪

764
00:34:09,033 --> 00:34:11,933
{\an1}But with a coating of LINE-X
on the outside

765
00:34:11,966 --> 00:34:14,166
{\an1}and the inside of the wall...

766
00:34:14,200 --> 00:34:16,066
{\an1}(muffled explosions)

767
00:34:16,100 --> 00:34:20,466
{\an1}...it becomes more of a dust-up.

768
00:34:20,500 --> 00:34:21,533
♪

769
00:34:21,566 --> 00:34:23,000
{\an1}So what is this stuff?

770
00:34:23,033 --> 00:34:26,100
{\an1}Well there's more than
one flavor of LINE-X,

771
00:34:26,133 --> 00:34:28,966
{\an1}but the coating on our
power pumpkins is the result

772
00:34:29,000 --> 00:34:32,333
{\an1}of a reaction between
two ingredients.

773
00:34:32,366 --> 00:34:36,366
{\an1}The first is a highly reactive
molecule.

774
00:34:36,400 --> 00:34:37,866
♪

775
00:34:37,900 --> 00:34:40,133
At each end
of its carbon backbone,

776
00:34:40,166 --> 00:34:43,800
{\an1}there's a nitrogen, carbon,
and oxygen group

777
00:34:43,833 --> 00:34:48,033
{\an7}called an isocyanate that acts
like a hook to lock onto...

778
00:34:48,066 --> 00:34:51,366
{\an7}the second chemical ingredient.

779
00:34:51,400 --> 00:34:56,500
{\an7}It's a polyamine-- a member of a
chemical group called resins.

780
00:34:56,533 --> 00:34:59,166
{\an7}LINE-X heats the two ingredients

781
00:34:59,200 --> 00:35:00,900
{\an1}and feeds them under pressure

782
00:35:00,933 --> 00:35:02,466
to this sprayer,

783
00:35:02,500 --> 00:35:05,466
which mixes them
just as they exit.

784
00:35:05,500 --> 00:35:08,566
Immediately,
the first ingredient hooks on

785
00:35:08,600 --> 00:35:12,300
{\an1}to part of the resin,
and all those linkages create

786
00:35:12,333 --> 00:35:16,200
{\an1}long entangled polymer chains
similar to rubber

787
00:35:16,233 --> 00:35:21,433
{\an1}so that they're flexible
but also much tougher.

788
00:35:21,466 --> 00:35:25,233
{\an7}The resulting elastomer
is called a "polyurea"--

789
00:35:25,266 --> 00:35:29,500
{\an7}a cousin to the more familiar
polyurethanes.

790
00:35:29,533 --> 00:35:33,800
{\an1}So, that's the general idea,though they tweak the chemistry

791
00:35:33,833 --> 00:35:36,033
{\an1}for different applications.

792
00:35:36,066 --> 00:35:39,866
Most of LINE-X's
consumer business

793
00:35:39,900 --> 00:35:42,033
{\an1}is spray-on truck bedliners.

794
00:35:42,066 --> 00:35:45,166
Not so much
for protecting produce

795
00:35:45,200 --> 00:35:49,333
{\an1}or making kid's toys last...
forever.

796
00:35:49,366 --> 00:35:51,966
♪

797
00:35:52,000 --> 00:35:56,333
The main ingredients for LINE-X
and synthetic rubber

798
00:35:56,366 --> 00:36:01,333
{\an1}come from fossil fuels
like refined crude oil.

799
00:36:01,366 --> 00:36:03,266
When we pump oil
from the ground,

800
00:36:03,300 --> 00:36:05,100
{\an1}it's a rich soup of molecules

801
00:36:05,133 --> 00:36:10,200
{\an7}built around that tinker toy
wonder element-- carbon.

802
00:36:10,233 --> 00:36:16,800
{\an7}They come in chains, rings,
trees, and other shapes.

803
00:36:16,833 --> 00:36:20,300
{\an1}Refining separates those
molecules by kind,

804
00:36:20,333 --> 00:36:23,066
{\an1}and in some cases,
breaks up bigger ones,

805
00:36:23,100 --> 00:36:28,766
{\an1}turning them into smaller, moreuseful molecules, like gasoline.

806
00:36:28,800 --> 00:36:32,966
{\an1}Refining also supplies industry
with the basic building blocks

807
00:36:33,000 --> 00:36:35,633
{\an1}for another group
of synthetic polymers

808
00:36:35,666 --> 00:36:39,433
{\an1}that came to dominate our way
of life in the 20th century--

809
00:36:39,466 --> 00:36:42,700
plastics.

810
00:36:42,733 --> 00:36:46,700
{\an1}Today, plastic is everywhere.

811
00:36:46,733 --> 00:36:48,066
{\an1}You can find it in tea bags...

812
00:36:48,100 --> 00:36:49,366
ribbon...

813
00:36:49,400 --> 00:36:51,333
{\an1}the inside of paper coffee
cups...

814
00:36:51,366 --> 00:36:52,500
sunscreen...

815
00:36:52,533 --> 00:36:53,866
toothpaste...

816
00:36:53,900 --> 00:36:55,266
sponges...

817
00:36:55,300 --> 00:36:56,700
most clothing...

818
00:36:56,733 --> 00:36:58,800
{\an1}the fish you eat...

819
00:36:58,833 --> 00:37:01,133
{\an1}...and even salt.

820
00:37:02,500 --> 00:37:05,533
{\an1}Malika Jeffries-El plays with
the molecular building blocks

821
00:37:05,566 --> 00:37:07,500
{\an1}of plastic for a living.

822
00:37:07,533 --> 00:37:11,066
{\an1}She's a polymer chemist
at Boston University.

823
00:37:11,100 --> 00:37:13,200
So clearly,
there's all kinds of

824
00:37:13,233 --> 00:37:14,700
different plastics,

825
00:37:14,733 --> 00:37:15,966
but is there something

826
00:37:16,000 --> 00:37:19,066
{\an1}that unites them all that makes
a plastic a plastic?

827
00:37:19,100 --> 00:37:21,000
{\an7}Plastics are a subset
of polymers,

828
00:37:21,033 --> 00:37:23,400
{\an7}in that they're known not just
for having their

829
00:37:23,433 --> 00:37:24,733
{\an7}macromolecular structure

830
00:37:24,766 --> 00:37:27,166
{\an7}but the processing
and mechanical properties

831
00:37:27,200 --> 00:37:29,366
{\an1}that come from, as a result
of that structure.

832
00:37:29,400 --> 00:37:31,366
Like bendy-ness and...Exactly.

833
00:37:31,400 --> 00:37:33,000
...strength.Exactly.

834
00:37:33,033 --> 00:37:36,000
Strength, exactly.Strength, flexibility,

835
00:37:36,033 --> 00:37:38,200
rigidity would beanother property.

836
00:37:38,233 --> 00:37:42,300
POGUE:
Like rubber,
all plastics are polymers--

837
00:37:42,333 --> 00:37:46,900
{\an1}long molecules made up
of subunits called monomers.

838
00:37:46,933 --> 00:37:50,300
{\an1}What makes each of thesepolymer-based materials distinct

839
00:37:50,333 --> 00:37:52,733
{\an1}are the combinations
of the different monomers

840
00:37:52,766 --> 00:37:54,666
{\an1}used to make them.

841
00:37:54,700 --> 00:37:56,633
{\an1}For example, this is actuallyreally hard and rigid,

842
00:37:56,666 --> 00:37:59,200
{\an1}and one of the units in hereis styrene,

843
00:37:59,233 --> 00:38:00,200
{\an1}and this is polystyrene.

844
00:38:00,233 --> 00:38:01,566
Not hard
and rigid at all.

845
00:38:01,600 --> 00:38:02,666
Not hard and rigid at all,

846
00:38:02,700 --> 00:38:04,633
{\an1}but when you blend in
the other molecules,

847
00:38:04,666 --> 00:38:06,033
{\an1}you get different properties.

848
00:38:06,066 --> 00:38:07,033
{\an3}Wow.

849
00:38:07,066 --> 00:38:09,500
POGUE:
But it's not all chemistry.

850
00:38:09,533 --> 00:38:12,366
{\an1}Processing can turn
the same plastic

851
00:38:12,400 --> 00:38:15,200
{\an1}into very different products.

852
00:38:15,233 --> 00:38:20,100
{\an8}JEFFRIES-EL:
These were actually molded and
blown into this bottle shape,

853
00:38:20,133 --> 00:38:22,666
{\an1}and in this case,
really small fibers were spun

854
00:38:22,700 --> 00:38:26,366
{\an1}from the polymer and then
processed to make this.

855
00:38:26,400 --> 00:38:27,800
And it comes out
soft and comfortable.

856
00:38:27,833 --> 00:38:30,866
Comes out soft and comfortable.

857
00:38:30,900 --> 00:38:34,466
POGUE:
Our Age of Plastics
isn't very old.

858
00:38:34,500 --> 00:38:38,733
It was this guy, Leo Baekeland,
who gets credit

859
00:38:38,766 --> 00:38:42,033
{\an1}for the first fully synthetic
plastic.

860
00:38:42,066 --> 00:38:44,533
{\an1}He called it Bakelite,

861
00:38:44,566 --> 00:38:47,866
{\an1}and by the 1920s,
it had become a big hit

862
00:38:47,900 --> 00:38:49,900
{\an1}in all kinds of products--

863
00:38:49,933 --> 00:38:52,100
{\an1}from radios to kitchenware...

864
00:38:52,133 --> 00:38:53,566
to kids' toys...

865
00:38:53,600 --> 00:38:56,500
and coming in
a variety of colors.

866
00:38:56,533 --> 00:39:02,100
{\an7}Malika has offered to whip up
some of this landmark plastic.

867
00:39:02,133 --> 00:39:06,933
{\an1}It's made from two monomers:
phenol,

868
00:39:06,966 --> 00:39:11,066
{\an7}a ring of six carbon atoms
bonded to five hydrogens,

869
00:39:11,100 --> 00:39:14,466
{\an7}and an oxygen bonded
to a hydrogen;

870
00:39:14,500 --> 00:39:16,800
{\an7}and formaldehyde,

871
00:39:16,833 --> 00:39:20,200
{\an7}one carbon atom bonded
to two hydrogens

872
00:39:20,233 --> 00:39:23,700
{\an7}and double bonded to an oxygen.

873
00:39:23,733 --> 00:39:26,500
{\an8}After dissolving
the solid phenol

874
00:39:26,533 --> 00:39:28,866
{\an7}into the formaldehyde
solution...

875
00:39:28,900 --> 00:39:33,400
{\an7}Malika adds two acids
to start up the process.

876
00:39:33,433 --> 00:39:35,800
Then we wait.

877
00:39:35,833 --> 00:39:38,366
{\an8}JEFFRIES-EL:
There should kind of be
this "a-ha" moment

878
00:39:38,400 --> 00:39:40,600
{\an8}and it should just go.

879
00:39:40,633 --> 00:39:42,300
{\an8}POGUE:
Are you saying
it's gonna harden?

880
00:39:42,333 --> 00:39:43,500
{\an1}Yeah, it should get cloudy

881
00:39:43,533 --> 00:39:46,033
and polymer should come
crashing out.

882
00:39:46,066 --> 00:39:47,466
{\an8}JEFFRIES-EL:
I feel like it's
getting pinker,

883
00:39:47,500 --> 00:39:49,233
{\an7}which is an indication that
the chemistry is changing.

884
00:39:49,266 --> 00:39:51,500
{\an8}POGUE:
Oh! Did you see that!?

885
00:39:51,533 --> 00:39:54,433
{\an8}Like instantaneously!

886
00:39:54,466 --> 00:39:58,500
{\an7}Right before our eyes,
the phenol and formaldehyde

887
00:39:58,533 --> 00:40:01,933
{\an7}molecules link up,
giving off water molecules

888
00:40:01,966 --> 00:40:07,066
{\an8}while creating
long polymer chains.

889
00:40:07,100 --> 00:40:10,800
{\an8}You made plastic!

890
00:40:10,833 --> 00:40:13,500
{\an8}Look at that.

891
00:40:13,533 --> 00:40:15,500
{\an8}Genuine, crusty, hard,

892
00:40:15,533 --> 00:40:18,200
{\an8}hard plastic.

893
00:40:18,233 --> 00:40:19,333
JEFFRIES-EL:
So this is an example

894
00:40:19,366 --> 00:40:21,166
{\an1}of a thermoset plastic.

895
00:40:21,200 --> 00:40:23,066
{\an1}Once it's set into place
with heat,

896
00:40:23,100 --> 00:40:24,100
{\an1}you can't reform it

897
00:40:24,133 --> 00:40:26,466
or reshape it
with additional heat.

898
00:40:26,500 --> 00:40:30,533
Oh okay, so this... so unlikea plastic drink bottle...

899
00:40:30,566 --> 00:40:32,033
{\an8}That's right.

900
00:40:32,066 --> 00:40:34,566
{\an8}...you can't melt this down and
reform it into something else.

901
00:40:34,600 --> 00:40:35,566
{\an3}No.

902
00:40:35,600 --> 00:40:37,033
{\an3}This is Bakelitenow and forever.

903
00:40:37,066 --> 00:40:38,600
That's stuck
like that forever, yup.

904
00:40:38,633 --> 00:40:40,566
♪

905
00:40:40,600 --> 00:40:42,966
POGUE:
In a thermoset plastic
like Bakelite,

906
00:40:43,000 --> 00:40:47,266
{\an1}the bonds between the polymer
chains are extremely strong.

907
00:40:47,300 --> 00:40:50,733
{\an1}By the time you've applied
enough heat to break them,

908
00:40:50,766 --> 00:40:53,533
{\an1}the chains themselves
have decomposed.

909
00:40:53,566 --> 00:40:57,266
{\an1}So you can't re-melt
thermoset plastics

910
00:40:57,300 --> 00:41:00,500
{\an1}or reshape them for recycling.

911
00:41:00,533 --> 00:41:04,033
{\an7}But not all plastics
are thermoset.

912
00:41:04,066 --> 00:41:05,333
{\an8}There's nylon,

913
00:41:05,366 --> 00:41:08,766
{\an1}the first commerciallysuccessful plastic that wasn't.

914
00:41:08,800 --> 00:41:13,166
{\an1}It came to public attention
at the 1939 World's Fair

915
00:41:13,200 --> 00:41:17,033
{\an1}as a substitute for silk
in women's stockings.

916
00:41:17,066 --> 00:41:19,833
{\an1}And its importance grew
during World War II.

917
00:41:19,866 --> 00:41:24,833
{\an1}At the time, the main source
of silk for parachutes

918
00:41:24,866 --> 00:41:27,200
{\an1}was America's enemy-- Japan.

919
00:41:27,233 --> 00:41:33,133
{\an1}So the military recruited nylon
as a replacement.

920
00:41:33,166 --> 00:41:38,700
{\an1}Malika offers me some firsthand
experience making nylon.

921
00:41:38,733 --> 00:41:41,233
{\an1}If you want to make nylon,
don't you need, like a factory?

922
00:41:41,266 --> 00:41:43,200
{\an1}Well if you want to makea lot of nylon, yeah,

923
00:41:43,233 --> 00:41:44,966
{\an1}then you're going to needa factory.

924
00:41:45,000 --> 00:41:46,666
{\an1}But if we're just goingto do a demo,

925
00:41:46,700 --> 00:41:48,700
{\an1}we're going to make a little bitof nylon and we can do it

926
00:41:48,733 --> 00:41:50,500
{\an1}in a little beaker.
All right, like for...

927
00:41:50,533 --> 00:41:51,666
for mouse stockings.

928
00:41:51,700 --> 00:41:53,666
Yes, exactly.(laughs)

929
00:41:53,700 --> 00:41:56,466
{\an1}To do this we're going to mix
together two chemicals.

930
00:41:56,500 --> 00:41:58,966
POGUE:
There are lots of variations
on nylon.

931
00:41:59,000 --> 00:42:03,033
{\an1}Our two key components
will be two molecules that are

932
00:42:03,066 --> 00:42:05,000
{\an1}simpler than they sound--

933
00:42:05,033 --> 00:42:08,433
{\an7}hexamethylenediamine

934
00:42:08,466 --> 00:42:11,433
{\an7}and adipoyl chloride.

935
00:42:11,466 --> 00:42:14,266
{\an7}Since they each have
a six-carbon chain...

936
00:42:18,066 --> 00:42:22,500
{\an7}we're making what's called
Nylon 6,6.

937
00:42:22,533 --> 00:42:24,833
{\an8}JEFFRIES-EL:
So the first thingwe're going to do is we're going

938
00:42:24,866 --> 00:42:27,200
{\an8}to add the hexamethylenediamine.

939
00:42:27,233 --> 00:42:29,033
{\an8}POGUE:
So mostly colored water.

940
00:42:29,066 --> 00:42:30,466
{\an8}Mostly colored water

941
00:42:30,500 --> 00:42:33,000
{\an8}with some cool organicsin there.
All right.

942
00:42:33,033 --> 00:42:35,766
{\an8}And then we're going to addour organic layer

943
00:42:35,800 --> 00:42:38,900
{\an8}of the adipoyl chloridesolution.

944
00:42:38,933 --> 00:42:40,466
{\an8}And because the densityof this

945
00:42:40,500 --> 00:42:43,366
{\an8}is less than thatof the water,

946
00:42:43,400 --> 00:42:44,433
{\an8}it should float

947
00:42:44,466 --> 00:42:46,766
{\an8}on the surface of the water.

948
00:42:46,800 --> 00:42:48,500
Kind of like
oil and vinegar.

949
00:42:48,533 --> 00:42:50,666
POGUE:
Where the two liquids meet,

950
00:42:50,700 --> 00:42:53,533
the molecules
of the hexamethylenediamine

951
00:42:53,566 --> 00:42:55,700
{\an1}and adipoyl chloride link up,

952
00:42:55,733 --> 00:43:00,700
{\an1}one after another, releasing
hydrogen chloride as a gas.

953
00:43:00,733 --> 00:43:03,266
{\an7}Malika gives me the honor

954
00:43:03,300 --> 00:43:07,133
{\an7}of pulling the newborn nylon
polymer out of the beaker.

955
00:43:07,166 --> 00:43:11,000
{\an1}And as more of the two liquids
come into contact,

956
00:43:11,033 --> 00:43:12,866
{\an1}they make more nylon.

957
00:43:12,900 --> 00:43:16,033
{\an7}Do you have a ladder, Malika?

958
00:43:16,066 --> 00:43:18,433
{\an7}There you go.
Look at that.

959
00:43:18,466 --> 00:43:22,466
Freshly baked,
free-range nylon.

960
00:43:22,500 --> 00:43:23,700
Amazingly,

961
00:43:23,733 --> 00:43:27,600
this really is a junior version
of how bulk nylon

962
00:43:27,633 --> 00:43:29,433
is manufactured.

963
00:43:29,466 --> 00:43:30,400
All right...

964
00:43:30,433 --> 00:43:33,633
{\an1}anyone need stockings?

965
00:43:33,666 --> 00:43:35,266
Unlike Bakelite,

966
00:43:35,300 --> 00:43:37,700
{\an7}nylon is an example
of a thermoplastic,

967
00:43:37,733 --> 00:43:40,733
{\an7}which we can reheat and reform.

968
00:43:40,766 --> 00:43:45,500
{\an7}That's the basis of some
plastic recycling.

969
00:43:45,533 --> 00:43:48,600
{\an7}Malika wants to show me
one more example.

970
00:43:48,633 --> 00:43:50,333
{\an1}And this time what are we
going to make?

971
00:43:50,366 --> 00:43:52,866
{\an1}Um, so for this demonstrationI thought I would show you

972
00:43:52,900 --> 00:43:54,966
{\an1}how we make polyurethane foams.

973
00:43:55,000 --> 00:43:57,233
And what do we use
polyurethane foam

974
00:43:57,266 --> 00:43:58,533
for in the world?

975
00:43:58,566 --> 00:44:01,500
Polyurethane is usedin like seat cushions, uh...

976
00:44:01,533 --> 00:44:03,600
{\an1}and also insulation.

977
00:44:03,633 --> 00:44:05,600
{\an1}You think about like blown foam
and things like that.

978
00:44:05,633 --> 00:44:06,533
Oh yeah.

979
00:44:06,566 --> 00:44:07,866
(imitating E.T.):
E.T. blown foam.

980
00:44:07,900 --> 00:44:09,133
Yeah, I remember that.(laughing)

981
00:44:09,166 --> 00:44:11,033
♪

982
00:44:11,066 --> 00:44:13,133
POGUE:
There are two key reactants.

983
00:44:13,166 --> 00:44:17,033
{\an1}First up is a type of molecule
with an oxygen-hydrogen hook

984
00:44:17,066 --> 00:44:19,000
at either end.

985
00:44:19,033 --> 00:44:22,200
{\an1}Aside from its role
in polyurethanes,

986
00:44:22,233 --> 00:44:23,366
{\an1}this one shows up

987
00:44:23,400 --> 00:44:24,633
in paintballs

988
00:44:24,666 --> 00:44:26,633
{\an1}and laxatives too.

989
00:44:26,666 --> 00:44:30,000
{\an1}The other reactant
we've already met at LINE-X--

990
00:44:30,033 --> 00:44:33,066
{\an1}that carbon-backboned
isocyanate molecule

991
00:44:33,100 --> 00:44:37,700
{\an1}with the nitrogen/carbon/oxygen
hooks at either end.

992
00:44:37,733 --> 00:44:40,666
{\an1}JEFFRIES-EL:And we stir this together.

993
00:44:40,700 --> 00:44:42,333
{\an1}And so you can already seeit's starting to react

994
00:44:42,366 --> 00:44:43,466
{\an1}because it's starting to get

995
00:44:43,500 --> 00:44:46,100
{\an7}milky and it's starting
to grow in size.

996
00:44:46,133 --> 00:44:47,866
{\an7}You can see it's rising up
a little bit.

997
00:44:47,900 --> 00:44:50,966
POGUE:
The two molecules begin
to link up to form

998
00:44:51,000 --> 00:44:53,600
{\an1}a polyurethane polymer.

999
00:44:53,633 --> 00:44:55,533
♪

1000
00:44:55,566 --> 00:44:56,666
{\an1}At the same time,

1001
00:44:56,700 --> 00:44:59,500
{\an7}one ingredient also reacts
with some water

1002
00:44:59,533 --> 00:45:03,700
{\an7}generating carbon dioxide gas.

1003
00:45:03,733 --> 00:45:05,400
{\an7}That's what causes the bubbling

1004
00:45:05,433 --> 00:45:10,200
{\an7}and ultimately the foam when
the polyurethane grows rigid.

1005
00:45:10,233 --> 00:45:14,566
{\an8}♪

1006
00:45:14,600 --> 00:45:15,566
I know I'm tacky but...

1007
00:45:15,600 --> 00:45:17,166
(chortling):
Oh!

1008
00:45:17,200 --> 00:45:21,000
And the cup's entombed
inside there.

1009
00:45:21,033 --> 00:45:23,266
(chuckling):Yeah, the cup is...the cup is gone.

1010
00:45:23,300 --> 00:45:26,700
POGUE:
Pretty cool,
but it's just a start.

1011
00:45:26,733 --> 00:45:29,766
{\an7}Because when in foam...

1012
00:45:29,800 --> 00:45:33,166
{\an7}do as the... Foam-mans do?

1013
00:45:33,200 --> 00:45:36,266
♪

1014
00:45:37,633 --> 00:45:39,733
(David cackling)

1015
00:45:39,766 --> 00:45:43,400
♪

1016
00:45:43,433 --> 00:45:45,033
There we go...

1017
00:45:45,066 --> 00:45:47,000
{\an1}Years of snowman training.

1018
00:45:47,033 --> 00:45:48,566
{\an1}(Malika laughing)

1019
00:45:48,600 --> 00:45:52,733
{\an7}We'll open a 529 plan,
we'll buy some diapers...

1020
00:45:52,766 --> 00:45:54,800
{\an7}Nothing but the bestfor you.

1021
00:45:54,833 --> 00:45:56,733
{\an7}He has your smile.

1022
00:45:56,766 --> 00:45:58,666
{\an1}(laughing uproariously)

1023
00:45:58,700 --> 00:46:00,500
♪

1024
00:46:00,533 --> 00:46:02,366
POGUE:
At this point...

1025
00:46:02,400 --> 00:46:03,666
{\an1}Polycarbonate.

1026
00:46:03,700 --> 00:46:05,166
POGUE:
...you're probably getting
the idea.

1027
00:46:05,200 --> 00:46:06,700
Polyethylene terepthalate--

1028
00:46:06,733 --> 00:46:08,000
P.E.T.E.

1029
00:46:08,033 --> 00:46:10,366
POGUE:
That there are lots of
different plastics...

1030
00:46:10,400 --> 00:46:11,933
{\an1}Polyvinylchloride--

1031
00:46:11,966 --> 00:46:13,400
{\an1}PVC.

1032
00:46:13,433 --> 00:46:15,033
POGUE:...each made out of polymers...

1033
00:46:15,066 --> 00:46:16,566
These are examplesof polyamides.

1034
00:46:16,600 --> 00:46:18,600
Commercially known as nylon.

1035
00:46:18,633 --> 00:46:20,966
POGUE:
...constructed sort of
the same way...

1036
00:46:21,000 --> 00:46:22,133
Polystyrene.

1037
00:46:22,166 --> 00:46:24,400
POGUE:
...but out of different
subunits...

1038
00:46:24,433 --> 00:46:26,533
Polypropylene-- PP.

1039
00:46:26,566 --> 00:46:29,200
POGUE:
...to obtain very different
material properties.

1040
00:46:29,233 --> 00:46:31,133
Low-density polyethylene--

1041
00:46:31,166 --> 00:46:32,666
{\an1}LDPE.

1042
00:46:32,700 --> 00:46:36,133
POGUE:
And then if you start throwing
in additives and fillers...

1043
00:46:36,166 --> 00:46:38,033
Polyvinylalcohol--

1044
00:46:38,066 --> 00:46:39,800
{\an3}PVA.

1045
00:46:39,833 --> 00:46:41,133
POGUE:
...like colorants...

1046
00:46:41,166 --> 00:46:43,166
High-density polyethylene--

1047
00:46:43,200 --> 00:46:44,500
{\an1}HDPE.

1048
00:46:44,533 --> 00:46:47,300
POGUE:
...flame retardants,
glass, or carbon fibers...

1049
00:46:47,333 --> 00:46:48,966
Polymethylmethacrylate--

1050
00:46:49,000 --> 00:46:50,166
{\an1}PMMA.

1051
00:46:50,200 --> 00:46:52,666
POGUE:
...you end up with
tens of thousands

1052
00:46:52,700 --> 00:46:54,366
{\an1}of grades of plastic...

1053
00:46:54,400 --> 00:46:55,900
{\an1}Polyoxymethylene--

1054
00:46:55,933 --> 00:46:57,700
{\an1}P.O.M.

1055
00:46:57,733 --> 00:47:00,766
POGUE:
...each tailored for
a specific purpose.

1056
00:47:00,800 --> 00:47:03,266
Which has created the problem--

1057
00:47:03,300 --> 00:47:06,800
{\an1}what do we do with them
when that job is finished?

1058
00:47:08,833 --> 00:47:10,000
♪

1059
00:47:10,033 --> 00:47:12,100
{\an1}Mostly, we throw them out.

1060
00:47:12,133 --> 00:47:17,766
{\an1}91% of all the plastic we make
ends up in landfills....

1061
00:47:17,800 --> 00:47:19,033
...or burned...

1062
00:47:19,066 --> 00:47:23,933
{\an1}...or just escapes
into the environment.

1063
00:47:23,966 --> 00:47:28,200
{\an1}The remaining 9% is recycled.

1064
00:47:28,233 --> 00:47:31,900
{\an1}But first, the plastic has to be
carefully separated by type,

1065
00:47:31,933 --> 00:47:34,033
{\an7}those recycling number symbols.

1066
00:47:34,066 --> 00:47:39,133
{\an7}Any mix-up there can contaminate
an otherwise reusable plastic,

1067
00:47:39,166 --> 00:47:41,766
{\an1}rendering it worthless.

1068
00:47:43,300 --> 00:47:44,800
{\an1}And there aren't many places
willing to do

1069
00:47:44,833 --> 00:47:47,266
{\an1}that separating work.

1070
00:47:47,300 --> 00:47:51,700
{\an1}In 2018, China stopped accepting
shipments

1071
00:47:51,733 --> 00:47:54,500
{\an1}of bulk unsorted plastic
from the U.S.,

1072
00:47:54,533 --> 00:47:57,366
{\an1}or anywhere else in the world.

1073
00:47:57,400 --> 00:48:01,266
{\an1}With the economics of recycling
in turmoil,

1074
00:48:01,300 --> 00:48:04,966
{\an1}lately the discussion hasshifted to single-use plastics,

1075
00:48:05,000 --> 00:48:08,233
{\an1}about half of all the plastic
we produce.

1076
00:48:08,266 --> 00:48:11,866
{\an1}Much of it is food related.

1077
00:48:11,900 --> 00:48:16,933
{\an1}To learn more, I travel
to the University of Georgia

1078
00:48:16,966 --> 00:48:20,300
{\an1}to meet Jason Locklin,
a chemistry professor

1079
00:48:20,333 --> 00:48:23,733
{\an1}and the director of its
New Materials Institute.

1080
00:48:23,766 --> 00:48:25,800
{\an1}Well, thanks for meeting me
here, Jason.

1081
00:48:25,833 --> 00:48:27,800
I brought you breakfast.All right!

1082
00:48:27,833 --> 00:48:33,133
POGUE:
Well, breakfast and a bag
of single-use problems.

1083
00:48:33,166 --> 00:48:34,533
This is called

1084
00:48:34,566 --> 00:48:35,833
{\an1}a clamshell container.

1085
00:48:35,866 --> 00:48:38,933
{\an1}Less than 1% of all polystyrene
is recycled globally.

1086
00:48:38,966 --> 00:48:40,866
{\an7}If this makes its way
into the landfill,

1087
00:48:40,900 --> 00:48:43,133
{\an7}which is exactly where it'll go,

1088
00:48:43,166 --> 00:48:45,200
{\an7}it'll persist thereforever.

1089
00:48:45,233 --> 00:48:46,900
{\an1}We have a plastic straw.

1090
00:48:46,933 --> 00:48:50,166
{\an1}It'll stay there for hundreds,if not thousands, of years.

1091
00:48:50,200 --> 00:48:51,733
{\an1}Is that really a way

1092
00:48:51,766 --> 00:48:55,366
{\an1}to design packaging--to have a material that you use

1093
00:48:55,400 --> 00:48:56,866
{\an1}for ten seconds,

1094
00:48:56,900 --> 00:49:00,833
{\an1}and then it goes to a landfill
for a thousand years?

1095
00:49:00,866 --> 00:49:02,900
POGUE:
Even packaging
that looks recyclable,

1096
00:49:02,933 --> 00:49:06,900
{\an1}like paper takeout containers,
may not be because...

1097
00:49:06,933 --> 00:49:10,200
{\an1}well, they have to hold food.

1098
00:49:10,233 --> 00:49:12,866
LOCKLIN:
If you put food into

1099
00:49:12,900 --> 00:49:15,733
a paper towel,what happens to it?

1100
00:49:15,766 --> 00:49:17,366
It's going to get soggy
and fall apart.

1101
00:49:17,400 --> 00:49:18,466
Exactly.

1102
00:49:18,500 --> 00:49:20,266
So, in order to make thisa takeout container,

1103
00:49:20,300 --> 00:49:22,566
we have to coat it with plastic.

1104
00:49:22,600 --> 00:49:25,266
{\an1}It essentially prohibits
our ability to recycle it.

1105
00:49:25,300 --> 00:49:27,066
Wow.

1106
00:49:27,100 --> 00:49:28,266
So is there any solution

1107
00:49:28,300 --> 00:49:30,166
to that problem?So here's just an example.

1108
00:49:30,200 --> 00:49:32,766
If you pull the filmoff that plastic,

1109
00:49:32,800 --> 00:49:34,166
this is aboutwhat it looks like.

1110
00:49:34,200 --> 00:49:38,866
But this film is madeout of a material called PHA.

1111
00:49:38,900 --> 00:49:40,866
{\an8}POGUE:
PHAs--

1112
00:49:40,900 --> 00:49:43,733
{\an7}polyhydroxyalkanoates--

1113
00:49:43,766 --> 00:49:47,133
{\an7}are a type of plastic produced
from polymers harvested

1114
00:49:47,166 --> 00:49:49,266
{\an1}from certain bacteria.

1115
00:49:49,300 --> 00:49:51,833
{\an1}For the bacteria,

1116
00:49:51,866 --> 00:49:54,233
{\an1}the polymers are essentially
kind of like fat,

1117
00:49:54,266 --> 00:49:55,900
{\an1}a way to store energy.

1118
00:49:55,933 --> 00:49:58,533
{\an1}But, because they come
from bacteria,

1119
00:49:58,566 --> 00:50:01,133
{\an1}PHAs have a huge advantage.

1120
00:50:01,166 --> 00:50:04,133
{\an1}They're completely
biodegradable.

1121
00:50:04,166 --> 00:50:08,200
{\an1}Researchers in Jason's lab
are among several scientists

1122
00:50:08,233 --> 00:50:11,766
{\an1}and companies around the world
developing

1123
00:50:11,800 --> 00:50:13,833
{\an1}a PHA-based coating
that could replace

1124
00:50:13,866 --> 00:50:15,600
{\an1}the traditional plastics

1125
00:50:15,633 --> 00:50:20,500
{\an1}that often make our take-out
boxes unrecyclable.

1126
00:50:20,533 --> 00:50:22,833
{\an1}Although the cost of PHAs
still needs to come down

1127
00:50:22,866 --> 00:50:25,033
{\an1}to be competitive.

1128
00:50:25,066 --> 00:50:29,300
And finally,what does Jason think about that

1129
00:50:29,333 --> 00:50:32,800
{\an1}eco-friendly-looking green bag
I brought breakfast in.

1130
00:50:32,833 --> 00:50:37,500
{\an7}This is a great exampleof some absolute green washing.

1131
00:50:37,533 --> 00:50:38,900
"Biodegradable."

1132
00:50:38,933 --> 00:50:40,366
You see it in big, bold claims.

1133
00:50:40,400 --> 00:50:42,700
{\an1}If you read the fine print,

1134
00:50:42,733 --> 00:50:48,900
{\an1}it says, "49.28% biodegradation
in 900 days

1135
00:50:48,933 --> 00:50:51,400
{\an1}"under non-typical conditions.

1136
00:50:51,433 --> 00:50:54,033
{\an7}No evidence of further
biodegradation."

1137
00:50:54,066 --> 00:50:56,000
(laughing):
Come on!

1138
00:50:56,033 --> 00:50:58,233
{\an1}That sounds like a total scam.

1139
00:50:58,266 --> 00:51:01,500
{\an1}But look at the size
of the green leaves!

1140
00:51:01,533 --> 00:51:04,900
{\an1}That makes me feel good about
myself-- it has a leaf on it.

1141
00:51:04,933 --> 00:51:07,633
{\an1}This is simply adding
to the confusion

1142
00:51:07,666 --> 00:51:11,566
{\an1}of people like yourself,
people in the general public,

1143
00:51:11,600 --> 00:51:13,033
{\an1}that want to do the right thing.

1144
00:51:13,066 --> 00:51:16,833
{\an1}This makes it really difficultto know exactly what to do.

1145
00:51:16,866 --> 00:51:18,833
♪

1146
00:51:18,866 --> 00:51:20,400
POGUE:
Oh!

1147
00:51:20,433 --> 00:51:23,533
{\an1}When it comes to creating
new materials,

1148
00:51:23,566 --> 00:51:26,466
{\an1}we may be the victims
of our own success.

1149
00:51:26,500 --> 00:51:28,700
{\an1}It was like poof!

1150
00:51:28,733 --> 00:51:32,366
{\an1}We've invented some that are
useful and so durable...

1151
00:51:32,400 --> 00:51:35,866
{\an1}that they last more than
a human lifetime.

1152
00:51:35,900 --> 00:51:38,933
{\an1}And now we're drowning in them.

1153
00:51:38,966 --> 00:51:41,466
{\an1}But attitudes are changing

1154
00:51:41,500 --> 00:51:44,000
{\an1}with engineers and chemists
harnessing

1155
00:51:44,033 --> 00:51:48,033
{\an1}biology to combat the problem.

1156
00:51:48,066 --> 00:51:51,466
{\an1}In the end, the human ingenuity
that helped create

1157
00:51:51,500 --> 00:51:53,566
{\an1}the current crisis

1158
00:51:53,600 --> 00:51:57,400
{\an1}may help solve it as well.

1159
00:51:57,433 --> 00:52:04,300
{\an1}The only thing between me and
certain death is chemistry?

1160
00:52:04,333 --> 00:52:06,266
♪

1161
00:52:06,300 --> 00:52:09,733
As we move
"Beyond The Elements."

1162
00:52:09,766 --> 00:52:14,300
♪

1163
00:52:32,166 --> 00:52:37,800
{\an8}♪

1164
00:52:48,066 --> 00:52:52,300
{\an7}To order this program on DVD,
visit ShopPBS

1165
00:52:52,333 --> 00:52:55,566
{\an7}or call 1-800-PLAY-PBS.

1166
00:52:55,600 --> 00:52:58,300
{\an7}Episodes of "NOVA" are available
with Passport.

1167
00:52:58,333 --> 00:53:01,900
{\an7}"NOVA" is also available
on Amazon Prime Video.

1168
00:53:01,933 --> 00:53:07,033
{\an8}♪