1 00:00:01,400 --> 00:00:03,133 ♪ 2 00:00:06,900 --> 00:00:08,733 ♪ 3 00:00:08,766 --> 00:00:12,366 DAVID POGUE: What's it take to make our modern world? 4 00:00:12,400 --> 00:00:13,333 Ah! 5 00:00:13,366 --> 00:00:14,366 (Pogue shouts) 6 00:00:14,400 --> 00:00:15,466 That's amazing! 7 00:00:15,500 --> 00:00:18,366 I'm David Pogue. 8 00:00:18,400 --> 00:00:21,933 {\an1}Join me on a high-speed chase 9 00:00:21,966 --> 00:00:24,333 {\an1}through the elements... 10 00:00:24,366 --> 00:00:25,866 and beyond. 11 00:00:25,900 --> 00:00:27,066 (explosions) 12 00:00:27,100 --> 00:00:28,133 Oh, my God! 13 00:00:28,166 --> 00:00:30,533 {\an1}As we smash our way into the materials, 14 00:00:30,566 --> 00:00:31,566 molecules, 15 00:00:31,600 --> 00:00:32,633 and reactions... 16 00:00:32,666 --> 00:00:33,900 AMANDA CAVANAGH:It's a really cool enzyme 17 00:00:33,933 --> 00:00:35,400 {\an1}because it makes life on Earth possible. 18 00:00:35,433 --> 00:00:38,100 POGUE:...that make the places we live, 19 00:00:38,133 --> 00:00:39,800 the bodies we live in, 20 00:00:39,833 --> 00:00:43,166 {\an1}and the stuff we can't seem to live without. 21 00:00:43,200 --> 00:00:46,100 {\an1}The only thing between me and certain death... 22 00:00:46,133 --> 00:00:47,633 {\an1}(explosions boom, glass shatters) 23 00:00:47,666 --> 00:00:49,200 ...is chemistry? 24 00:00:49,233 --> 00:00:51,100 {\an1}From killer snails... 25 00:00:51,133 --> 00:00:52,700 MANDEË HOLFORD:Just when you think you've heard of everything, 26 00:00:52,733 --> 00:00:53,900 {\an1}nature will surprise you. 27 00:00:53,933 --> 00:00:56,200 POGUE: ...and exploding glass 28 00:00:56,233 --> 00:00:59,600 {\an1}to the price a pepper-eating Pogue pays. 29 00:00:59,633 --> 00:01:02,466 {\an1}There's got to be some easier way to learn about molecules. 30 00:01:02,500 --> 00:01:03,833 ♪ 31 00:01:03,866 --> 00:01:07,233 {\an1}In this hour, we'll dig into the surprising ways 32 00:01:07,266 --> 00:01:11,500 {\an1}different elements combine together 33 00:01:11,533 --> 00:01:13,100 and blow apart. 34 00:01:13,133 --> 00:01:15,100 {\an7}(explosion echoes) 35 00:01:15,133 --> 00:01:17,766 {\an1}Come for the chemistry, 36 00:01:17,800 --> 00:01:20,066 {\an1}but stay for the bacon blowtorch. 37 00:01:20,100 --> 00:01:21,833 The power of bacon! 38 00:01:21,866 --> 00:01:22,833 (laughter) 39 00:01:22,866 --> 00:01:23,800 {\an1}"Beyond the Elements: 40 00:01:23,833 --> 00:01:27,866 Reactions"-- right now on "NOVA." 41 00:01:27,900 --> 00:01:42,833 ♪ 42 00:01:42,833 --> 00:01:49,900 ♪ 43 00:01:49,933 --> 00:01:52,733 DAVID POGUE: Imagine that you're about to take your first shot 44 00:01:52,766 --> 00:01:55,966 {\an1}in a game of pool-- the break. 45 00:01:56,000 --> 00:01:57,300 {\an1}(chalk sound on cue) 46 00:01:57,333 --> 00:02:00,966 {\an1}But when the cue ball hits the other balls... 47 00:02:01,000 --> 00:02:02,566 (rat squeaks) 48 00:02:02,600 --> 00:02:05,466 {\an1}...they all turn into a rat. 49 00:02:05,500 --> 00:02:09,000 {\an1}Or imagine you snap a pencil in two... 50 00:02:09,033 --> 00:02:13,866 {\an1}and it becomes a flower... and a fork. 51 00:02:13,900 --> 00:02:19,000 {\an1}That's how weird and surprising some chemical reactions are. 52 00:02:19,033 --> 00:02:22,166 {\an1}You can take something asdangerous as the element sodium, 53 00:02:22,200 --> 00:02:24,633 which explodes on contact with water... 54 00:02:24,666 --> 00:02:26,166 (explosion) 55 00:02:26,200 --> 00:02:30,366 {\an1}combine it with a lethal gas, the element chlorine, 56 00:02:30,400 --> 00:02:33,433 {\an1}and end up with something utterly different: 57 00:02:33,466 --> 00:02:36,233 {\an7}sodium chloride-- 58 00:02:36,266 --> 00:02:39,000 {\an7}table salt for your fries. 59 00:02:40,866 --> 00:02:44,333 {\an7}Transformative chemical reactions are everywhere, 60 00:02:44,366 --> 00:02:45,933 {\an7}they're going on all the time. 61 00:02:45,966 --> 00:02:46,933 (explosion) 62 00:02:46,966 --> 00:02:48,900 {\an1}They put the bang in explosives... 63 00:02:48,933 --> 00:02:50,066 That's a reaction! 64 00:02:50,100 --> 00:02:51,500 ANNOUNCER: Round 2. 65 00:02:51,533 --> 00:02:52,733 POGUE: ...and the "heat" in hot peppers. 66 00:02:52,766 --> 00:02:55,000 What am I doing? 67 00:02:55,033 --> 00:02:56,300 {\an7}Learning how to harness them 68 00:02:56,333 --> 00:02:58,900 {\an7}has given us some control over our world 69 00:02:58,933 --> 00:03:01,933 {\an7}and maybe even helped to make us human. 70 00:03:01,966 --> 00:03:06,000 {\an8}♪ 71 00:03:06,033 --> 00:03:08,933 {\an7}And few folks know more about chemical reactions... 72 00:03:08,966 --> 00:03:10,800 {\an7}This is not normal fire. 73 00:03:10,833 --> 00:03:12,966 POGUE:...than my old friend Theo Gray. 74 00:03:13,000 --> 00:03:15,933 (flames billowing) 75 00:03:15,966 --> 00:03:19,633 {\an1}Today, I've come to his mad scientist lair in Illinois 76 00:03:19,666 --> 00:03:22,600 {\an1}to find out more about one of the most powerful weapons 77 00:03:22,633 --> 00:03:24,333 {\an1}in our reaction arsenal... 78 00:03:24,366 --> 00:03:25,700 Oh ho, ho, ho! 79 00:03:25,733 --> 00:03:27,433 Fire. 80 00:03:27,466 --> 00:03:29,200 Fire is a chemical reaction, 81 00:03:29,233 --> 00:03:30,800 plain and simple. 82 00:03:30,833 --> 00:03:34,066 It happens to be the mostimportant chemical reaction 83 00:03:34,100 --> 00:03:36,566 ever, times ten--bar none. (chuckles) 84 00:03:36,600 --> 00:03:37,900 ♪ 85 00:03:37,933 --> 00:03:40,233 GRAY: When you think about the importance of fire 86 00:03:40,266 --> 00:03:42,333 to human beingsbecoming who we are, 87 00:03:42,366 --> 00:03:44,033 it's kind of the start ofcivilization almost, 88 00:03:44,066 --> 00:03:48,533 discovering how to controlthis amazing thing-- feeds us, 89 00:03:48,566 --> 00:03:51,500 chases away the bears,it lights up the night. 90 00:03:51,533 --> 00:03:52,766 There's almost nothingyou could name 91 00:03:52,800 --> 00:03:55,100 that's more importantthan fire. 92 00:03:56,166 --> 00:03:59,866 POGUE: So what is fire, anyway? 93 00:03:59,900 --> 00:04:02,833 {\an7}You may have learned this in school. 94 00:04:02,866 --> 00:04:05,133 {\an8}To make fire, a kind of combustion, 95 00:04:05,166 --> 00:04:09,033 {\an7}you need fuel plus heat plus oxygen. 96 00:04:09,066 --> 00:04:11,466 {\an7}That formula is simple... 97 00:04:11,500 --> 00:04:13,833 {\an7}but what's happening isn't. 98 00:04:13,866 --> 00:04:16,066 {\an1}And what's actually happening here is kind of subtle. 99 00:04:16,100 --> 00:04:17,900 {\an1}The wood itselfisn't really burning. 100 00:04:17,933 --> 00:04:18,966 {\an1}You see the flames? 101 00:04:19,000 --> 00:04:21,100 {\an5}Yeah...Most of the reactionis happening 102 00:04:21,133 --> 00:04:23,700 {\an5}up in the airabove the wood 103 00:04:23,733 --> 00:04:25,333 because it needs to mix with air. 104 00:04:25,366 --> 00:04:27,366 {\an1}Like, there's no air in the wood. 105 00:04:27,400 --> 00:04:29,300 {\an1}And what's happeningis the heat of the flames here 106 00:04:29,333 --> 00:04:30,633 {\an1}are breaking down 107 00:04:30,666 --> 00:04:32,766 {\an1}and evaporating compoundsin the wood, 108 00:04:32,800 --> 00:04:34,833 {\an1}bringing them up into the air. 109 00:04:36,400 --> 00:04:39,333 {\an8}POGUE: Those gases from the wood are complex molecules 110 00:04:39,366 --> 00:04:43,633 {\an7}made mostly of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. 111 00:04:43,666 --> 00:04:45,200 {\an7}When the rising gases enter 112 00:04:45,233 --> 00:04:47,900 {\an7}the high temperature area of the flames, 113 00:04:47,933 --> 00:04:49,800 {\an8}they're joined by oxygen from the air 114 00:04:49,833 --> 00:04:53,966 {\an7}in a swirling cauldron of complicated reactions. 115 00:04:54,000 --> 00:04:58,600 {\an7}The gases break down, and their atoms rearrange. 116 00:04:58,633 --> 00:05:01,266 {\an7}If the gases burn completely, 117 00:05:01,300 --> 00:05:04,666 {\an7}they'll form water and carbon dioxide. 118 00:05:04,700 --> 00:05:06,900 {\an8}More often, incomplete burning produces 119 00:05:06,933 --> 00:05:09,633 {\an7}a variety of other molecules. 120 00:05:09,666 --> 00:05:14,033 {\an7}Importantly for us, thereactions also release energy-- 121 00:05:14,066 --> 00:05:18,300 {\an7}the light you see and the heat you feel. 122 00:05:18,333 --> 00:05:22,533 {\an7}And that, at its heart, is whathappens in chemical reactions-- 123 00:05:22,566 --> 00:05:25,266 the breaking and making of bonds 124 00:05:25,300 --> 00:05:28,266 {\an1}and the shuffling around of atoms. 125 00:05:28,300 --> 00:05:31,200 {\an1}You take two different things, you smash them together, 126 00:05:31,233 --> 00:05:33,033 {\an1}they rearrange themselves, 127 00:05:33,066 --> 00:05:35,733 {\an1}and then you get... something else comes out. 128 00:05:35,766 --> 00:05:38,666 {\an1}And one of the big-time players in the game... 129 00:05:38,700 --> 00:05:40,300 ♪ 130 00:05:40,333 --> 00:05:42,700 ...is oxygen. 131 00:05:42,733 --> 00:05:45,233 You ready? 132 00:05:45,266 --> 00:05:47,266 POGUE: With enough heat it reacts with just about anything, 133 00:05:47,300 --> 00:05:50,266 {\an1}as Theo soon shows me in his barn. 134 00:05:50,300 --> 00:05:52,166 {\an1}(thermic lance igniting) 135 00:05:52,200 --> 00:05:57,333 {\an1}This powerful cutting tool is called a thermic lance. 136 00:05:57,366 --> 00:06:01,233 {\an1}It uses pressurized oxygen fed through a metal rod. 137 00:06:01,266 --> 00:06:02,900 {\an1}This one's made of iron. 138 00:06:02,933 --> 00:06:07,066 {\an1}We don't normally think of iron as something that can burn, 139 00:06:07,100 --> 00:06:09,433 {\an1}but when lit in the flow of oxygen, 140 00:06:09,466 --> 00:06:12,900 {\an8}it does, generating so much heat... 141 00:06:12,933 --> 00:06:14,233 {\an3}Wow! 142 00:06:14,266 --> 00:06:17,766 {\an1}...that you can cut through a brick or concrete. 143 00:06:17,800 --> 00:06:20,566 {\an1}Demolition crews use large thermic lances 144 00:06:20,600 --> 00:06:24,266 {\an1}to slice up all sorts of big, unwieldy things-- 145 00:06:25,366 --> 00:06:29,233 {\an1}from bridges to ships to machinery. 146 00:06:29,266 --> 00:06:33,900 {\an1}But does the rod that burns in the stream of oxygen 147 00:06:33,933 --> 00:06:36,166 {\an1}need to be metal? 148 00:06:36,200 --> 00:06:37,400 {\an1}I shudder to ask... 149 00:06:37,433 --> 00:06:39,466 {\an1}why you've gotplates of bacon here. 150 00:06:39,500 --> 00:06:41,533 {\an1}Well, because bacon is thefunniest thing 151 00:06:41,566 --> 00:06:43,400 {\an1}that you can form into a tubeand shoot oxygen through. 152 00:06:43,433 --> 00:06:45,700 (laughing) 153 00:06:45,733 --> 00:06:47,666 Unfortunately actualAmerican-style bacon 154 00:06:47,700 --> 00:06:49,500 doesn't hold togetherwell enough. 155 00:06:49,533 --> 00:06:51,133 {\an1}We need the engineering grade. 156 00:06:51,166 --> 00:06:53,666 {\an1}This is Italian prosciutto. 157 00:06:53,700 --> 00:06:58,666 POGUE: Theo has already baked some tubes of prosciutto. 158 00:06:58,700 --> 00:07:00,800 {\an1}The next step is to wrap them in yet another piece 159 00:07:00,833 --> 00:07:03,966 {\an1}to create one large hollow tube, 160 00:07:04,000 --> 00:07:07,166 {\an1}which he hooks up to his oxygen tank. 161 00:07:07,200 --> 00:07:09,066 Okay, so now, what can we dowith this? 162 00:07:09,100 --> 00:07:10,766 The same thing you do with anysort of thermic lance. 163 00:07:10,800 --> 00:07:11,900 You cut something with it. 164 00:07:11,933 --> 00:07:15,133 Uh, we're goingto cut steel... (laughs) 165 00:07:15,166 --> 00:07:16,900 because, why not? No! 166 00:07:16,933 --> 00:07:19,266 {\an1}You're going to cut steel with bacon? 167 00:07:19,300 --> 00:07:21,366 {\an1}THEO GRAY:Yes, a steel baking pan. 168 00:07:21,400 --> 00:07:23,800 {\an5}Wow.You just haveto get it hot enough. 169 00:07:23,833 --> 00:07:26,333 ♪ 170 00:07:35,566 --> 00:07:38,633 The power of bacon! (laughs) 171 00:07:38,666 --> 00:07:41,033 That's amazing! 172 00:07:41,066 --> 00:07:43,500 Yeah, I mean that's, that'sa good amount of cutting there. 173 00:07:43,533 --> 00:07:47,066 {\an1}I've heard of steel-cut oatmeal for breakfast, but... 174 00:07:47,100 --> 00:07:50,066 {\an1}Bacon-cut steel? (laughs) 175 00:07:50,100 --> 00:07:52,300 ♪ 176 00:07:52,333 --> 00:07:55,933 POGUE: Gaining control over fire has had an immeasurable impact 177 00:07:55,966 --> 00:07:58,266 {\an1}on human civilization. 178 00:07:58,300 --> 00:08:02,500 {\an1}In fact, the most popular construction material 179 00:08:02,533 --> 00:08:04,600 {\an1}in the world has its roots 180 00:08:04,633 --> 00:08:08,500 {\an1}in one of the oldest pyro technologies: 181 00:08:08,533 --> 00:08:12,433 {\an1}roasting a certain kind of rock. 182 00:08:12,466 --> 00:08:15,266 {\an1}We know it as concrete. 183 00:08:15,300 --> 00:08:17,800 ♪ 184 00:08:17,833 --> 00:08:21,400 Modern concrete is a mixture of aggregate-- 185 00:08:21,433 --> 00:08:26,566 {\an1}materials like sand, gravel, and crushed stone-- 186 00:08:26,600 --> 00:08:29,933 with a binder-- these days, most often cement. 187 00:08:29,966 --> 00:08:31,266 And that's key. 188 00:08:31,300 --> 00:08:35,200 {\an1}Because people are always confusing concrete... 189 00:08:35,233 --> 00:08:36,800 and cement. 190 00:08:36,833 --> 00:08:41,566 {\an1}Cement is the glue, concrete is the end product. 191 00:08:41,600 --> 00:08:43,000 {\an1}Cement sidewalks? 192 00:08:43,033 --> 00:08:45,266 {\an1}No, that's concrete! 193 00:08:45,300 --> 00:08:46,600 Cement trucks? 194 00:08:46,633 --> 00:08:49,533 {\an1}Uh-uh, they carry concrete! 195 00:08:49,566 --> 00:08:51,266 But cement is the key ingredient. 196 00:08:51,300 --> 00:08:56,133 {\an1}And that's why I head to the LafargeHolcim Cement Plant, 197 00:08:56,166 --> 00:09:02,400 {\an1}the largest in the U.S., located outside St. Louis, Missouri. 198 00:09:02,433 --> 00:09:04,266 We shoot rock every day. 199 00:09:06,433 --> 00:09:08,600 POGUE: My day with plant manager John Goetz 200 00:09:08,633 --> 00:09:11,666 {\an1}begins with a bang. 201 00:09:11,700 --> 00:09:13,166 {\an1}VOICE OVER RADIO: Fire in the hole! 202 00:09:14,900 --> 00:09:16,333 Is it safe to go down there? 203 00:09:16,366 --> 00:09:18,733 JOHN GOETZ (chuckling):Not quite. 204 00:09:18,766 --> 00:09:22,333 {\an1}(explosions echo) 205 00:09:31,966 --> 00:09:33,666 {\an1}How's that for you? (laughing) 206 00:09:33,700 --> 00:09:36,366 That's a reaction.That's awesome, huh? 207 00:09:36,400 --> 00:09:38,266 Do it again! (laughs) 208 00:09:38,300 --> 00:09:42,300 Now that, my friends,is a lot of limestone. 209 00:09:42,333 --> 00:09:43,700 GOETZ: That's a lot of rock. 210 00:09:43,733 --> 00:09:46,066 POGUE: Before long, this will be holding together 211 00:09:46,100 --> 00:09:48,300 America's buildingsand sidewalks and... 212 00:09:48,333 --> 00:09:49,533 That's right, 213 00:09:49,566 --> 00:09:51,666 we're going to turn this limestone into cement. 214 00:09:53,100 --> 00:09:55,333 POGUE: But what exactly is limestone? 215 00:09:57,333 --> 00:10:01,333 It's mostly calcium carbonate-- a compound that, 216 00:10:01,366 --> 00:10:05,100 {\an7}as its name says, has two parts. 217 00:10:05,133 --> 00:10:09,100 {\an7}There's a calcium atom that has given up two of its electrons, 218 00:10:09,133 --> 00:10:12,933 {\an7}making it a positively charged ion. 219 00:10:12,966 --> 00:10:17,066 {\an7}The other part is carbonate, made up of three oxygen atoms 220 00:10:17,100 --> 00:10:20,733 {\an7}that are sharing electrons with a carbon atom. 221 00:10:20,766 --> 00:10:25,366 {\an7}Sharing electrons is called covalent bonding. 222 00:10:25,400 --> 00:10:28,233 {\an7}The two electrons from the calcium have joined the party, 223 00:10:28,266 --> 00:10:32,200 {\an7}making the carbonate a negative ion. 224 00:10:32,233 --> 00:10:36,733 {\an7}The positive calcium ion and thenegative carbonate ion attract, 225 00:10:36,766 --> 00:10:42,333 {\an7}forming-- surprise-- an ionic bond. 226 00:10:43,900 --> 00:10:45,233 From the quarry, 227 00:10:45,266 --> 00:10:47,666 {\an1}the limestone rock gets gradually crushed down, 228 00:10:47,700 --> 00:10:50,533 {\an1}along with some clay and other ingredients, 229 00:10:50,566 --> 00:10:52,733 {\an1}into a fine powder called 230 00:10:52,766 --> 00:10:54,466 "raw meal," 231 00:10:54,500 --> 00:10:57,000 in preparation to enter the centerpiece 232 00:10:57,033 --> 00:10:58,933 {\an1}of this whole operation: 233 00:10:58,966 --> 00:11:03,700 a rotary kiln, about 22 feet in diameter 234 00:11:03,733 --> 00:11:06,633 {\an1}and about 100 yards long. 235 00:11:06,666 --> 00:11:10,100 ♪ 236 00:11:10,133 --> 00:11:12,000 GOETZ: It's a big kiln, largest in the world. 237 00:11:12,033 --> 00:11:13,733 Kiln, as in, like,an oven? Kiln. 238 00:11:13,766 --> 00:11:16,000 {\an7}Correct, gas temperatures inside the kiln 239 00:11:16,033 --> 00:11:18,566 {\an7}right here is about 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit. 240 00:11:20,100 --> 00:11:21,866 {\an8}POGUE:Just before it enters the kiln, 241 00:11:21,900 --> 00:11:24,533 {\an8}the powdery raw meal is dropped down 242 00:11:24,566 --> 00:11:27,766 {\an1}through the kiln's hot exhaust gases. 243 00:11:27,800 --> 00:11:29,533 {\an8}By the time it reaches the bottom 244 00:11:29,566 --> 00:11:31,133 {\an7}and the entrance to the kiln, 245 00:11:31,166 --> 00:11:34,333 {\an7}the heat has transformed the calcium carbonate 246 00:11:34,366 --> 00:11:39,733 {\an7}from the limestone into carbon dioxide gas and calcium oxide, 247 00:11:39,766 --> 00:11:43,533 {\an7}also known as quicklime. 248 00:11:43,566 --> 00:11:48,433 {\an7}Normally the kiln rotates at aspeed of about 4 times a minute. 249 00:11:48,466 --> 00:11:50,400 {\an1}And ordinarily this whole thing would be turning... 250 00:11:50,433 --> 00:11:52,500 {\an1}But it was shut down for maintenance. 251 00:11:53,966 --> 00:11:57,100 {\an1}Oh man...the mouth of the dragon! 252 00:11:57,133 --> 00:12:00,166 {\an1}Giving us a chance to see it from the inside. 253 00:12:00,200 --> 00:12:01,766 {\an1}So the whole thingis turning. 254 00:12:01,800 --> 00:12:04,000 {\an1}The whole thing is turning over four revolutions a minute. 255 00:12:04,033 --> 00:12:05,966 {\an1}As the material comesdown the kiln, 256 00:12:06,000 --> 00:12:07,633 {\an1}there's a burner pipewith a flame 257 00:12:07,666 --> 00:12:09,466 {\an1}right here,inside the kiln. 258 00:12:09,500 --> 00:12:12,333 GOETZ: And heating the material to 2,600 degrees, 259 00:12:12,366 --> 00:12:15,433 {\an1}the flame temperature is about 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit. 260 00:12:15,466 --> 00:12:18,200 {\an1}At this point it looks like dark baby powder? 261 00:12:18,233 --> 00:12:20,200 {\an1}At this pointit looks like lava. 262 00:12:20,233 --> 00:12:22,533 Oh, it does?Yes, it's red hot lava. 263 00:12:22,566 --> 00:12:24,400 ♪ 264 00:12:24,433 --> 00:12:27,400 {\an8}POGUE: As the main ingredient, calcium oxide, 265 00:12:27,433 --> 00:12:30,800 {\an7}journeys down the kiln getting hotter and hotter, 266 00:12:30,833 --> 00:12:34,000 {\an7}it reacts with the other ingredients in the raw meal, 267 00:12:34,033 --> 00:12:37,966 {\an7}creating complex synthetic compounds. 268 00:12:38,000 --> 00:12:40,533 {\an7}By the time the whole mix reaches the end, 269 00:12:40,566 --> 00:12:42,700 {\an7}it has a new name... 270 00:12:43,966 --> 00:12:45,200 GOETZ: Clinker. 271 00:12:45,233 --> 00:12:46,200 POGUE: This stuff is called clinker? 272 00:12:46,233 --> 00:12:47,433 JOHN GOETZ: It's clinker. 273 00:12:47,466 --> 00:12:48,900 You couldn't call it something dignified-- 274 00:12:48,933 --> 00:12:50,666 Oh, I didn't name it. Like calcium carbonate 275 00:12:50,700 --> 00:12:52,500 or sulfur trioxide-- clinker? 276 00:12:52,533 --> 00:12:53,766 Clinker. (laughs) 277 00:12:53,800 --> 00:12:55,366 Coming out ofthe kiln process, 278 00:12:55,400 --> 00:12:56,700 before it goesinto the cooler. 279 00:12:56,733 --> 00:12:59,933 {\an8}And clinker just refers to that limestone brew 280 00:12:59,966 --> 00:13:01,866 {\an8}that's been cooked.Correct. 281 00:13:03,200 --> 00:13:05,366 POGUE: But it still isn't cement! 282 00:13:05,400 --> 00:13:07,366 ♪ 283 00:13:07,400 --> 00:13:10,733 {\an1}In the final stage,they add a little more limestone 284 00:13:10,766 --> 00:13:13,866 {\an1}and hydrated calcium sulfate-- 285 00:13:13,900 --> 00:13:17,233 {\an1}a common mineral known as gypsum. 286 00:13:17,266 --> 00:13:20,000 {\an1}Conveyer belts seem to reallybe a thing around here. 287 00:13:20,033 --> 00:13:25,433 {\an1}And the whole thing gets ground back down to a fine powder. 288 00:13:25,466 --> 00:13:26,933 {\an1}And here it is, at last, 289 00:13:26,966 --> 00:13:29,166 {\an1}no more grinding,no more ingredients, 290 00:13:29,200 --> 00:13:30,300 {\an1}this is thefinished product. 291 00:13:30,333 --> 00:13:32,266 {\an8}This is cement.This is cement. 292 00:13:32,300 --> 00:13:35,066 {\an8}From the virgin limestonebluffs of Missouri. 293 00:13:35,100 --> 00:13:37,033 There it is. 294 00:13:37,066 --> 00:13:39,166 (explosion) 295 00:13:39,200 --> 00:13:41,033 POGUE: This LafargeHolcim plant 296 00:13:41,066 --> 00:13:45,533 produces up to about 4.4 million tons of cement a year. 297 00:13:45,566 --> 00:13:48,200 {\an1}But that's just a small percentage 298 00:13:48,233 --> 00:13:51,733 {\an1}of the 97 million tons produced in the U.S., 299 00:13:51,766 --> 00:13:55,966 {\an1}and the 4.5 billion tons 300 00:13:56,000 --> 00:13:57,666 {\an1}produced internationally. 301 00:13:57,700 --> 00:14:01,500 {\an1}Virtually all of it ends up in concrete 302 00:14:01,533 --> 00:14:04,600 {\an1}that mixture of cement, water, and rock 303 00:14:04,633 --> 00:14:07,066 {\an1}that is second only to water 304 00:14:07,100 --> 00:14:10,766 {\an1}as the most-consumed resource on the planet. 305 00:14:10,800 --> 00:14:13,400 ♪ 306 00:14:13,433 --> 00:14:15,300 {\an1}That comes at a price though-- 307 00:14:15,333 --> 00:14:19,266 {\an1}a massive carbon footprint. 308 00:14:19,300 --> 00:14:24,433 {\an1}In 2016, cement production emitted about 8% 309 00:14:24,466 --> 00:14:28,366 {\an1}of the global total of greenhouse gases, 310 00:14:28,400 --> 00:14:32,700 {\an1}over half of that from the production of clinker. 311 00:14:32,733 --> 00:14:34,866 {\an1}Proposed solutions to this problem 312 00:14:34,900 --> 00:14:37,800 {\an1}range from using wood to build high-rises, 313 00:14:37,833 --> 00:14:41,366 {\an1}like this 18-story one in Norway, 314 00:14:41,400 --> 00:14:46,466 {\an1}to injecting CO2 back into concrete as it cures, 315 00:14:46,500 --> 00:14:50,866 {\an1}like this company in New Jersey making pavers. 316 00:14:50,900 --> 00:14:55,733 {\an1}And even growing cement using bacteria, 317 00:14:55,766 --> 00:15:00,300 {\an1}though scaling up those ideas remains a challenge. 318 00:15:00,333 --> 00:15:02,700 {\an7}Maybe the solution, or part of the solution, 319 00:15:02,733 --> 00:15:05,633 {\an7}to greenhouse gas emissions and global warming will come 320 00:15:05,666 --> 00:15:08,333 {\an7}from a breakthrough in chemistry. 321 00:15:08,366 --> 00:15:10,666 {\an1}That may sound foolishly optimistic, 322 00:15:10,700 --> 00:15:13,233 {\an1}but the discovery of a chemical reaction 323 00:15:13,266 --> 00:15:14,966 {\an1}over a hundred years ago 324 00:15:15,000 --> 00:15:17,300 {\an1}changed the trajectory of humanity, 325 00:15:17,333 --> 00:15:19,866 {\an1}though few know the story. 326 00:15:19,900 --> 00:15:23,133 ♪ 327 00:15:23,166 --> 00:15:24,733 At the start of the 20th century, 328 00:15:24,766 --> 00:15:28,333 {\an1}farmlands like these didn't look so verdant. 329 00:15:28,366 --> 00:15:30,233 {\an1}And with populations rising, 330 00:15:30,266 --> 00:15:33,433 {\an1}scientists wondered whether, in the near future, 331 00:15:33,466 --> 00:15:35,433 {\an1}there would be enough food. 332 00:15:38,066 --> 00:15:40,566 {\an7}The problem was nitrogen. 333 00:15:40,600 --> 00:15:43,833 {\an1}Animals need nitrogen to grow. 334 00:15:43,866 --> 00:15:46,333 So do plants. 335 00:15:46,366 --> 00:15:49,733 {\an1}But before the 20th century, farmers mainly depended 336 00:15:49,766 --> 00:15:54,300 {\an1}on compost and manure to supply it to their crops, 337 00:15:54,333 --> 00:15:58,000 {\an1}essentially recycling nitrogen from dead plants and animals. 338 00:15:58,033 --> 00:16:02,433 {\an1}But there was only so much nitrogen in that cycle. 339 00:16:02,466 --> 00:16:05,000 Eventually, the growing population 340 00:16:05,033 --> 00:16:08,100 {\an1}would exceed the farmlands' capacity to grow food, 341 00:16:08,133 --> 00:16:10,633 {\an1}leading to mass starvation. 342 00:16:12,633 --> 00:16:17,066 {\an1}But there was a solution in the air... literally. 343 00:16:17,100 --> 00:16:20,833 {\an1}Our atmosphere is almost 80% nitrogen 344 00:16:20,866 --> 00:16:24,033 {\an1}but that doesn't do plants any direct good. 345 00:16:24,066 --> 00:16:27,900 {\an1}That's because it's in the form of N2, 346 00:16:27,933 --> 00:16:31,766 {\an7}two nitrogen atoms sharing in a triple bond. 347 00:16:31,800 --> 00:16:37,033 {\an7}Three electrons from each atom are fully shared between them, 348 00:16:37,066 --> 00:16:41,000 {\an7}which as Ed Cussler, a chemicalengineer and professor emeritus 349 00:16:41,033 --> 00:16:43,366 {\an1}at the University of Minnesota explains, 350 00:16:43,400 --> 00:16:47,666 {\an1}makes the nitrogen molecule one tough cookie. 351 00:16:47,700 --> 00:16:50,333 {\an8}So the atmosphere is 78% nitrogen. 352 00:16:50,366 --> 00:16:53,900 {\an7}Why can't the plants just take the nitrogen out of the air? 353 00:16:53,933 --> 00:16:56,166 {\an7}Because you can't breakthis little bastard in half. 354 00:16:56,200 --> 00:16:58,700 (laughs)You take the nitrogen, 355 00:16:58,733 --> 00:16:59,966 you have to break this triple bond, 356 00:17:00,000 --> 00:17:01,433 between the two nitrogen atoms. 357 00:17:01,466 --> 00:17:03,866 It's almostthe hardest bond, 358 00:17:03,900 --> 00:17:06,433 {\an1}the most difficult bond that we know. 359 00:17:06,466 --> 00:17:08,900 {\an1}Basically it's almost inert. 360 00:17:08,933 --> 00:17:10,833 ♪ 361 00:17:10,866 --> 00:17:13,600 POGUE:So the scientific challenge was for someone to find a way 362 00:17:13,633 --> 00:17:16,933 {\an1}to take that stubborn nitrogen molecule from the air, 363 00:17:16,966 --> 00:17:21,400 {\an1}and bust it apart to create something plants could use-- 364 00:17:21,433 --> 00:17:24,366 {\an8}to invent a synthetic fertilizer. 365 00:17:24,400 --> 00:17:26,000 ♪ 366 00:17:26,033 --> 00:17:27,666 Around 1910, 367 00:17:27,700 --> 00:17:31,300 {\an1}German Chemist Fritz Haber and his team found the answer, 368 00:17:31,333 --> 00:17:35,633 {\an1}which they demonstrated using this table-top machine. 369 00:17:35,666 --> 00:17:38,500 {\an1}From nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas, 370 00:17:38,533 --> 00:17:42,533 {\an1}he could produce NH3... ammonia. 371 00:17:42,566 --> 00:17:44,366 {\an1}A fertilizer itself, 372 00:17:44,400 --> 00:17:48,300 {\an7}and a starting point to produce others. 373 00:17:48,333 --> 00:17:52,100 {\an1}German chemist Carl Bosch brought Haber's work 374 00:17:52,133 --> 00:17:54,866 {\an1}to an industrial scale. 375 00:17:54,900 --> 00:17:58,733 {\an1}Which is why it is known as the Haber-Bosch process. 376 00:17:58,766 --> 00:18:00,266 {\an1}Ed and his colleague, 377 00:18:00,300 --> 00:18:03,166 {\an1}Joe Franek, show me their table-top version. 378 00:18:03,200 --> 00:18:05,500 POGUE: Joe, maybe you can show us 379 00:18:05,533 --> 00:18:06,733 a little more hands-on 380 00:18:06,766 --> 00:18:09,033 how the Haber-Bosch process works? 381 00:18:09,066 --> 00:18:12,933 All right, we're going to puta quantity of nitrogen 382 00:18:12,966 --> 00:18:15,366 in this syringe, then we'regoing to put three times 383 00:18:15,400 --> 00:18:18,433 that amount of hydrogenin this syringe, 384 00:18:18,466 --> 00:18:20,533 we're going to lightour Bunsen burner 385 00:18:20,566 --> 00:18:22,266 and we're going to passthat mixture of gasses 386 00:18:22,300 --> 00:18:24,366 over what willbe our hot catalyst, 387 00:18:24,400 --> 00:18:27,966 which is iron in this case,and that will facilitate 388 00:18:28,000 --> 00:18:33,200 the conversion of the nitrogenand hydrogen into ammonia. 389 00:18:33,233 --> 00:18:36,233 {\an1}Okay, so one syringe full of nitrogen 390 00:18:36,266 --> 00:18:38,666 and three times as much hydrogen 391 00:18:38,700 --> 00:18:41,366 because the formula for ammonia is NH3? 392 00:18:41,400 --> 00:18:43,500 There you go. It all makes sense. 393 00:18:43,533 --> 00:18:44,866 ♪ 394 00:18:44,900 --> 00:18:47,766 {\an8}POGUE: Joe passes the mixture over some steel wool 395 00:18:47,800 --> 00:18:50,033 {\an7}heated by a Bunsen burner. 396 00:18:50,066 --> 00:18:52,233 {\an7}The steel wool acts as a catalyst, 397 00:18:52,266 --> 00:18:54,866 {\an7}a material that helps a reaction along 398 00:18:54,900 --> 00:18:58,166 {\an1}while not getting consumed by it. 399 00:18:58,200 --> 00:19:00,333 {\an1}After six minutes, 400 00:19:00,366 --> 00:19:02,733 {\an1}it's time to see if it worked. 401 00:19:02,766 --> 00:19:04,400 {\an1}FRANEK:So we now have 402 00:19:04,433 --> 00:19:08,166 {\an1}all of our gases, our unreactednitrogen and hydrogen 403 00:19:08,200 --> 00:19:10,900 {\an1}and the ammonia we producedin this one syringe, 404 00:19:10,933 --> 00:19:14,066 {\an1}and what I'm going to do is flush all of these gases 405 00:19:14,100 --> 00:19:17,000 {\an1}through our indicator tube. 406 00:19:17,033 --> 00:19:19,366 {\an1}If we flush some ammonia through these yellow beads, 407 00:19:19,400 --> 00:19:21,933 {\an1}they'll turn blue-- yeah, bravo. 408 00:19:21,966 --> 00:19:23,900 POGUE: I see blue! 409 00:19:26,566 --> 00:19:28,833 So how much ammonia do you think we got? 410 00:19:28,866 --> 00:19:31,133 Well, our indicator on the tube 411 00:19:31,166 --> 00:19:34,266 {\an1}says that we have just slightly less than 412 00:19:34,300 --> 00:19:36,366 {\an1}two parts per million of ammonia. 413 00:19:36,400 --> 00:19:38,000 Two parts per million? 414 00:19:38,033 --> 00:19:39,633 {\an1}So out of every million molecules, 415 00:19:39,666 --> 00:19:42,466 {\an1}we got two of ammonia? 416 00:19:42,500 --> 00:19:44,700 (gas hissing) At room temperature, 417 00:19:44,733 --> 00:19:47,233 {\an1}this process barely works, 418 00:19:47,266 --> 00:19:50,500 {\an1}and even with our burner heating things up a bit, 419 00:19:50,533 --> 00:19:52,800 {\an1}nitrogen gas is so inert, 420 00:19:52,833 --> 00:19:55,133 {\an1}the reaction isn't much better. 421 00:19:55,166 --> 00:19:56,900 {\an8}♪ 422 00:19:56,933 --> 00:20:01,466 {\an8}Part of the problem is that this equation is a two-way street. 423 00:20:01,500 --> 00:20:05,166 {\an1}Some reactions are one way-- irreversible. 424 00:20:05,200 --> 00:20:08,733 {\an1}When you bake a cake, you can't unbake it. 425 00:20:08,766 --> 00:20:12,766 {\an7}But the Haber-Bosch process, like many reactions, 426 00:20:12,800 --> 00:20:16,766 {\an7}goes both ways at the same time. 427 00:20:16,800 --> 00:20:18,000 {\an1}So while some of the nitrogen 428 00:20:18,033 --> 00:20:20,166 and hydrogen are forming ammonia, 429 00:20:20,200 --> 00:20:22,666 {\an1}some of the ammonia is breaking down, 430 00:20:22,700 --> 00:20:25,966 {\an1}into nitrogen and hydrogen. 431 00:20:26,000 --> 00:20:28,900 {\an1}The trick is to find the optimal conditions 432 00:20:28,933 --> 00:20:31,700 {\an1}where that balance heads in the direction you want. 433 00:20:31,733 --> 00:20:34,200 ♪ 434 00:20:34,233 --> 00:20:36,533 {\an7}One tool is pressure. 435 00:20:36,566 --> 00:20:39,933 {\an7}Bosch's industrialized version compressed the gases 436 00:20:39,966 --> 00:20:44,200 {\an7}to around 175 times normal atmospheric pressure. 437 00:20:44,233 --> 00:20:47,733 {\an7}And that huge pressure cooker ran very hot-- 438 00:20:47,766 --> 00:20:53,500 {\an7}550 degrees Celsius, around 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit. 439 00:20:53,533 --> 00:20:55,266 {\an7}Enough to make the hydrogen and nitrogen 440 00:20:55,300 --> 00:20:57,066 {\an7}react with the catalyst, 441 00:20:57,100 --> 00:21:01,766 {\an7}but not so hot as to break up a lot of ammonia. 442 00:21:01,800 --> 00:21:05,533 {\an1}Though the process requires extreme conditions, 443 00:21:05,566 --> 00:21:08,133 {\an1}the discovery of a way to split apart 444 00:21:08,166 --> 00:21:11,700 {\an1}that stubborn nitrogen molecule changed the world. 445 00:21:11,733 --> 00:21:14,700 {\an1}It opened the door to the creation 446 00:21:14,733 --> 00:21:17,466 {\an1}of artificial fertilizers. 447 00:21:17,500 --> 00:21:20,200 {\an1}And it's hard to overstate the impact 448 00:21:20,233 --> 00:21:26,366 {\an1}of the Haber-Bosch process on our ability to feed humanity. 449 00:21:26,400 --> 00:21:29,533 {\an1}What were the lasting effects of this introduction? 450 00:21:29,566 --> 00:21:31,900 {\an1}Two billion more people. 451 00:21:31,933 --> 00:21:34,533 If you lose this chemical fertilizer, 452 00:21:34,566 --> 00:21:37,800 {\an1}you lose two billion people-- they starve. 453 00:21:37,833 --> 00:21:41,366 {\an1}This is nota hypothetical issue. 454 00:21:41,400 --> 00:21:43,766 {\an1}Haber-Bosch is the chemistry that you wish for. 455 00:21:43,800 --> 00:21:45,000 {\an1}Because it's the chemistry 456 00:21:45,033 --> 00:21:48,600 {\an1}that improves the amount of food that you can grow 457 00:21:48,633 --> 00:21:50,966 on our planet. 458 00:21:51,000 --> 00:21:53,200 {\an1}And that makes an enormous difference 459 00:21:53,233 --> 00:21:56,000 {\an1}to the stability, the health, the wellbeing 460 00:21:56,033 --> 00:21:57,800 {\an1}of the people on the planet. 461 00:21:57,833 --> 00:22:01,066 {\an1}So one chemical reaction 462 00:22:01,100 --> 00:22:05,700 wound up radically changing humanity.... 463 00:22:05,733 --> 00:22:07,333 Yeah, some people argueit's the most, 464 00:22:07,366 --> 00:22:10,566 it's the most importantsingle chemical reaction. 465 00:22:10,600 --> 00:22:11,833 {\an3}Wow. 466 00:22:13,066 --> 00:22:16,533 {\an1}But before you go out and hug your nearest 467 00:22:16,566 --> 00:22:18,900 {\an1}ammonia-producing chemical plant, 468 00:22:18,933 --> 00:22:21,700 {\an1}you may want to consider the downsides. 469 00:22:21,733 --> 00:22:26,966 {\an1}Now that fertilizer is abundant, growers often apply too much. 470 00:22:27,000 --> 00:22:31,766 {\an1}Runoff fertilizer has led to giant algae blooms 471 00:22:31,800 --> 00:22:34,800 {\an1}and dead zones in oceans. 472 00:22:34,833 --> 00:22:39,533 {\an1}Also, making ammonia uses a lot of fossil fuel. 473 00:22:39,566 --> 00:22:44,200 {\an1}Annually, the industry as a whole accounts for one percent 474 00:22:44,233 --> 00:22:48,066 {\an1}of global CO2 emissions. 475 00:22:48,100 --> 00:22:51,066 ♪ 476 00:22:51,100 --> 00:22:53,633 {\an1}Ed Cussler is part of a team of scientists 477 00:22:53,666 --> 00:22:55,433 {\an1}at the University of Minnesota 478 00:22:55,466 --> 00:22:58,566 {\an1}working on a greener approach to producing ammonia. 479 00:23:01,700 --> 00:23:04,333 {\an1}This is the industrial Haber-Bosch process 480 00:23:04,366 --> 00:23:05,900 {\an1}in a smaller package. 481 00:23:05,933 --> 00:23:07,866 ERIC BUCHANAN: This ammonia reactor here is making about 482 00:23:07,900 --> 00:23:09,833 {\an1}25 tons of ammonia a year. 483 00:23:09,866 --> 00:23:11,300 {\an8}A standard commercial ammonia plant 484 00:23:11,333 --> 00:23:13,133 {\an8}is making thousands of tons a day. 485 00:23:13,166 --> 00:23:15,133 {\an8}Oh. So this is a much smaller scale. 486 00:23:15,166 --> 00:23:18,666 POGUE: It still depends on high temperature and pressure 487 00:23:18,700 --> 00:23:22,966 but it's powered by nearby wind turbines. 488 00:23:23,000 --> 00:23:26,266 You're taking nitrogenout of the air. 489 00:23:26,300 --> 00:23:28,300 You're making hydrogenout of the water. 490 00:23:28,333 --> 00:23:29,666 You're making itout of nature. 491 00:23:29,700 --> 00:23:31,333 {\an7}Yup, right here in this room. 492 00:23:31,366 --> 00:23:33,100 POGUE: The long-term vision 493 00:23:33,133 --> 00:23:35,866 {\an1}is that small facilities like this pilot plant 494 00:23:35,900 --> 00:23:38,733 {\an1}could make enough "green" ammonia 495 00:23:38,766 --> 00:23:41,700 {\an1}for a county's worth of farms-- in this area, 496 00:23:41,733 --> 00:23:45,333 {\an1}about 130,000 acres. 497 00:23:45,366 --> 00:23:49,166 CUSSLER: We are making fertilizer from air and water. 498 00:23:49,200 --> 00:23:50,766 {\an1}It's just straight alchemy. 499 00:23:50,800 --> 00:23:53,733 {\an1}You're not going to get rich doing it in the new green way, 500 00:23:53,766 --> 00:23:55,366 {\an1}but you can sure make a difference 501 00:23:55,400 --> 00:23:57,400 {\an1}in the way the planet is. 502 00:23:57,433 --> 00:24:00,266 ♪ 503 00:24:00,300 --> 00:24:03,600 POGUE: Scientists estimate that50 percent of the nitrogen atoms 504 00:24:03,633 --> 00:24:07,833 {\an1}in any person alive today at one point 505 00:24:07,866 --> 00:24:10,433 passed through the Haber-Bosch process. 506 00:24:10,466 --> 00:24:14,466 {\an1}Yet Fritz Haber's legacy is mixed. 507 00:24:14,500 --> 00:24:18,033 {\an1}He won the Nobel Prize in chemistry for his discovery 508 00:24:18,066 --> 00:24:22,600 {\an1}but is also considered the "Father of Chemical Warfare," 509 00:24:22,633 --> 00:24:26,800 {\an1}having proposed and supervised its use in World War I 510 00:24:26,833 --> 00:24:29,133 {\an1}by the German army. 511 00:24:29,166 --> 00:24:31,366 {\an1}Some historians believe that 512 00:24:31,400 --> 00:24:34,433 {\an1}the Haber-Bosch process itself 513 00:24:34,466 --> 00:24:36,766 {\an1}may have extended that war by years, 514 00:24:36,800 --> 00:24:41,866 {\an1}because it gave Germany a newsource of nitrogen compounds... 515 00:24:41,900 --> 00:24:44,466 {\an8}(explosion) 516 00:24:44,500 --> 00:24:48,633 {\an7}key ingredients in explosives. 517 00:24:48,666 --> 00:24:50,466 {\an7}What makes them "key"? 518 00:24:50,500 --> 00:24:54,500 {\an7}It all goes back to that stubborn nitrogen molecule. 519 00:24:54,533 --> 00:24:57,266 {\an7}Think of it like a spring. 520 00:24:57,300 --> 00:25:01,300 {\an7}Pulling the atoms apart takes a lot of energy. 521 00:25:01,333 --> 00:25:05,233 {\an7}And sticking them into nitrogencompounds keeps them separated. 522 00:25:05,266 --> 00:25:07,066 {\an7}But in explosives, 523 00:25:07,100 --> 00:25:10,366 {\an7}those compounds are designed to fall apart quickly, 524 00:25:10,400 --> 00:25:13,800 {\an7}freeing the nitrogen atoms to spring back together... 525 00:25:13,833 --> 00:25:15,200 {\an8}(explosion) 526 00:25:15,233 --> 00:25:19,800 {\an7}...and releasing the storedenergy from pulling them apart. 527 00:25:19,833 --> 00:25:22,566 ♪ 528 00:25:22,600 --> 00:25:24,866 {\an1}Seems like a good place to blow stuff up 529 00:25:24,900 --> 00:25:26,766 {\an1}without risking hitting anything. 530 00:25:26,800 --> 00:25:28,300 {\an1}Yeah,that's why we like 531 00:25:28,333 --> 00:25:29,766 {\an1}having our surroundingmountains. 532 00:25:29,800 --> 00:25:31,800 POGUE: To better understand the role 533 00:25:31,833 --> 00:25:34,366 {\an1}of nitrogen compounds in explosives, 534 00:25:34,400 --> 00:25:37,466 {\an1}I've decided to return to see some old friends, 535 00:25:37,500 --> 00:25:39,900 {\an1}the engineers and scientists 536 00:25:39,933 --> 00:25:43,033 {\an1}at the Energetic Materials Research and Testing Center 537 00:25:43,066 --> 00:25:45,700 {\an1}at New Mexico Tech. 538 00:25:45,733 --> 00:25:48,500 {\an1}We've had some fun in the past... 539 00:25:48,533 --> 00:25:53,933 {\an8}(explosions) 540 00:25:55,233 --> 00:25:57,933 {\an8}Well this is the most funtailgate you'll ever come to. 541 00:25:57,966 --> 00:25:59,066 (Pogue laughs) 542 00:25:59,100 --> 00:26:00,266 POGUE: So let's see 543 00:26:00,300 --> 00:26:01,900 {\an1}what ordinance tech Jonathan Myrkle 544 00:26:01,933 --> 00:26:03,866 {\an1}and chemist Tom Pleva 545 00:26:03,900 --> 00:26:07,266 {\an1}have in store for me today. 546 00:26:07,300 --> 00:26:09,500 It's... cotton? 547 00:26:09,533 --> 00:26:10,600 Cotton balls? 548 00:26:10,633 --> 00:26:12,266 That's correct. Like, cotton balls? 549 00:26:12,300 --> 00:26:13,733 {\an3}Yep. 550 00:26:13,766 --> 00:26:17,400 POGUE: Now you might think that cotton balls don't explode... 551 00:26:18,333 --> 00:26:20,766 {\an1}And you'd be right. 552 00:26:20,800 --> 00:26:22,066 {\an1}MYRKLE:That was underwhelming. 553 00:26:22,100 --> 00:26:23,866 (laughter) 554 00:26:23,900 --> 00:26:27,900 {\an1}Cotton fiber is about 90 percent cellulose, 555 00:26:27,933 --> 00:26:30,800 {\an1}a key structural component in green plants 556 00:26:30,833 --> 00:26:36,766 {\an1}composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but no nitrogen. 557 00:26:36,800 --> 00:26:40,133 {\an1}So our cotton balls will burn-- 558 00:26:40,166 --> 00:26:44,033 eventually-- though not explode. 559 00:26:44,066 --> 00:26:46,300 {\an8}The spores are erupting! 560 00:26:46,333 --> 00:26:50,433 {\an1}But back in the mid-1800s, chemists discovered 561 00:26:50,466 --> 00:26:55,133 {\an1}that they could add to cellulosewhat are called "nitro groups," 562 00:26:55,166 --> 00:26:58,866 each a nitrogen and two oxygen atoms. 563 00:26:58,900 --> 00:27:01,700 {\an7}That turned it into nitrocellulose, 564 00:27:01,733 --> 00:27:04,233 {\an7}also called gun cotton. 565 00:27:04,266 --> 00:27:07,133 {\an7}Those nitro groups made something 566 00:27:07,166 --> 00:27:08,766 {\an7}that burns like this... 567 00:27:08,800 --> 00:27:11,800 {\an7}into something that burns like this-- 568 00:27:11,833 --> 00:27:14,333 {\an8}flash paper. 569 00:27:15,233 --> 00:27:17,900 {\an1}But nitrocellulose is no joke. 570 00:27:17,933 --> 00:27:22,200 {\an1}In a confined space, like a gun barrel, it can be powerful. 571 00:27:22,233 --> 00:27:24,800 {\an1}It was the propellant the military used to launch 572 00:27:24,833 --> 00:27:29,266 {\an1}the shells out of these 16-inchguns on Iowa-class battleships. 573 00:27:29,300 --> 00:27:31,366 (loud blast) 574 00:27:31,400 --> 00:27:34,100 {\an1}And it's still a propellant today 575 00:27:34,133 --> 00:27:37,133 {\an1}in 155-millimeter artillery. 576 00:27:37,166 --> 00:27:39,433 (loud blast) 577 00:27:39,466 --> 00:27:41,966 ♪ 578 00:27:42,000 --> 00:27:42,966 Our next test... 579 00:27:43,000 --> 00:27:44,400 MYRKLE: Okay. 580 00:27:44,433 --> 00:27:48,133 POGUE: ...is 50 pounds of nitrocellulose propellant, 581 00:27:48,166 --> 00:27:51,166 {\an1}the kind used in those large-bore guns. 582 00:27:51,200 --> 00:27:54,666 {\an1}We give you 50 pounds of gun cotton. 583 00:27:54,700 --> 00:27:58,500 {\an1}Since the sphere container isn't sealed, it won't explode. 584 00:27:58,533 --> 00:28:00,333 Delivered unto the earth. 585 00:28:00,366 --> 00:28:01,333 {\an1}But what will happen? 586 00:28:01,366 --> 00:28:04,600 {\an1}After Jonathan wires it up, we head 587 00:28:04,633 --> 00:28:08,366 {\an1}to a nearby bunker to find out. 588 00:28:08,400 --> 00:28:09,566 {\an1}MYRKLE:Here we go. 589 00:28:09,600 --> 00:28:11,500 {\an1}Three, two, one... 590 00:28:11,533 --> 00:28:14,133 {\an8}♪ 591 00:28:14,166 --> 00:28:17,833 {\an8}POGUE: Compared to plain cotton, this is a show. 592 00:28:17,866 --> 00:28:19,233 {\an7}The burning nitrocellulose 593 00:28:19,266 --> 00:28:23,766 {\an7}generates rapidly expandinggases, including carbon dioxide, 594 00:28:23,800 --> 00:28:27,966 {\an7}carbon monoxide, water vapor, and, of course, nitrogen. 595 00:28:28,000 --> 00:28:29,700 It's pretty. 596 00:28:29,733 --> 00:28:32,900 {\an7}Packed behind a shell in the barrel of a gun, 597 00:28:32,933 --> 00:28:35,733 {\an7}the pressure from the expanding gases would hurl 598 00:28:35,766 --> 00:28:37,900 {\an7}the shell forward. 599 00:28:37,933 --> 00:28:40,733 {\an7}In our open bowl, it's more like fireworks, 600 00:28:40,766 --> 00:28:44,633 {\an7}with the gases sending burning pellets up in the air. 601 00:28:44,666 --> 00:28:45,700 {\an8}PLEVA: That's just a propellant. 602 00:28:45,733 --> 00:28:47,233 {\an7}That's a low grade here. 603 00:28:47,266 --> 00:28:49,866 {\an7}We're going to move onto actual explosives now. 604 00:28:49,900 --> 00:28:50,933 {\an8}Oh yeah?Yeah. 605 00:28:50,966 --> 00:28:52,133 {\an8}What's first up? 606 00:28:52,166 --> 00:28:53,833 {\an8}So we're going to start offwith ANFO. ANFO? 607 00:28:53,866 --> 00:28:56,066 {\an8}That is the biggest miningexplosive that we have. 608 00:28:56,100 --> 00:28:57,066 Oh, cool! 609 00:28:57,100 --> 00:28:59,133 ♪ 610 00:28:59,166 --> 00:29:04,133 POGUE:ANFO is an industrial explosiveused in mining and construction. 611 00:29:04,166 --> 00:29:08,466 It accounts for about 80% of all the explosives used 612 00:29:08,500 --> 00:29:09,633 {\an1}in North America. 613 00:29:09,666 --> 00:29:11,933 (loud explosion) 614 00:29:11,966 --> 00:29:15,300 {\an1}Probably no chemical showsbetter the intimate relationship 615 00:29:15,333 --> 00:29:19,433 {\an1}between fertilizer and explosives. 616 00:29:19,466 --> 00:29:24,033 {\an1}Though the name ANFO stands for ammonium nitrate and fuel oil, 617 00:29:24,066 --> 00:29:27,266 {\an7}it's over 90% ammonium nitrate-- 618 00:29:27,300 --> 00:29:31,600 {\an8}the same stuff as synthetic fertilizer. 619 00:29:31,633 --> 00:29:34,600 {\an8}Ammonium nitrate is built around nitrogen atoms 620 00:29:34,633 --> 00:29:38,866 {\an7}so it packs way more nitrogen than nitrocellulose. 621 00:29:40,033 --> 00:29:44,266 {\an1}That means ammonium nitrate can be very dangerous. 622 00:29:44,300 --> 00:29:48,333 {\an1}This is the aftermath of the deadliest industrial accident 623 00:29:48,366 --> 00:29:51,800 in U.S. history, the explosion of over 624 00:29:51,833 --> 00:29:55,400 {\an1}2,000 tons of ammonium nitrate 625 00:29:55,433 --> 00:30:02,033 {\an1}aboard a ship in Texas City, Texas, in 1947. 626 00:30:02,066 --> 00:30:06,233 {\an1}In 2020 in Beirut, Lebanon, there was similar explosion. 627 00:30:06,266 --> 00:30:09,700 (loud explosion) 628 00:30:09,733 --> 00:30:12,633 {\an1}A waterfront warehouse containing thousands of tons 629 00:30:12,666 --> 00:30:17,366 {\an1}of ammonium nitrate caught fire and detonated. 630 00:30:17,400 --> 00:30:19,433 (loud explosion) 631 00:30:19,466 --> 00:30:23,300 {\an1}The blast killed over 200 people, injured thousands, 632 00:30:23,333 --> 00:30:28,133 {\an1}and left an estimated 300,000 homeless. 633 00:30:31,900 --> 00:30:35,266 {\an1}Our ANFO test will be just 50 pounds of the stuff. 634 00:30:35,300 --> 00:30:36,300 MYRKLE: 50 pounds. 635 00:30:36,333 --> 00:30:38,733 POGUE: To get a reaction going, 636 00:30:38,766 --> 00:30:40,966 {\an1}even one that will release a lot of bang, 637 00:30:41,000 --> 00:30:43,366 {\an1}you need to put some energy into it first 638 00:30:43,400 --> 00:30:46,366 {\an1}to get some of the bonds to break. 639 00:30:46,400 --> 00:30:50,100 {\an1}That's called activation energy. 640 00:30:50,133 --> 00:30:53,000 {\an7}This is nitrogen triiodide, 641 00:30:53,033 --> 00:30:54,700 {\an7}an explosive whose existence 642 00:30:54,733 --> 00:30:56,133 {\an7}is so precarious... 643 00:30:56,166 --> 00:30:57,700 {\an8}(muffled puff) 644 00:30:57,733 --> 00:31:00,833 {\an7}...minimal activation energy is needed. 645 00:31:00,866 --> 00:31:03,366 {\an7}Even just the touch of a feather. 646 00:31:03,400 --> 00:31:07,000 {\an8}(muffled puff) 647 00:31:07,033 --> 00:31:11,400 In contrast, ANFO is hard to set off. 648 00:31:11,433 --> 00:31:16,000 So Jonathan hooks up a booster-- a smaller explosive. 649 00:31:16,033 --> 00:31:17,500 ♪ 650 00:31:17,533 --> 00:31:21,000 {\an1}Since much of EMRTC's researchand training involves explosions 651 00:31:21,033 --> 00:31:23,366 {\an1}in human-occupied environments, 652 00:31:23,400 --> 00:31:26,400 {\an1}they typically add a wooden dummy for scale 653 00:31:26,433 --> 00:31:30,033 {\an1}and to demonstrate an explosive's effect. 654 00:31:30,066 --> 00:31:31,966 {\an5}MYRKLE: You good? Good. 655 00:31:32,000 --> 00:31:32,966 Okay here we go. 656 00:31:33,000 --> 00:31:34,000 Three, two, one... 657 00:31:34,033 --> 00:31:37,266 {\an8}(loud explosion) 658 00:31:37,300 --> 00:31:39,200 {\an8}(Pogue laughing) 659 00:31:39,233 --> 00:31:41,466 That, my friend, is a firecracker. 660 00:31:41,500 --> 00:31:42,800 {\an1}That was like seven stories. 661 00:31:42,833 --> 00:31:44,200 {\an1}So, what just happened? 662 00:31:44,233 --> 00:31:48,333 {\an1}(tape rewinding sound) 663 00:31:48,366 --> 00:31:51,400 {\an1}Jonathan ignites the booster... 664 00:31:51,433 --> 00:31:53,033 {\an8}(loud explosion) 665 00:31:53,066 --> 00:31:55,233 {\an7}...that's the black smoke you see. 666 00:31:55,266 --> 00:31:58,533 {\an7}The pressure wave fromthe exploding booster, in turn, 667 00:31:58,566 --> 00:32:00,533 {\an7}detonates the ANFO, 668 00:32:00,566 --> 00:32:03,833 {\an7}breaking the bonds holding the ANFO atoms together. 669 00:32:03,866 --> 00:32:06,800 {\an1}They rearrange into more stable gases-- 670 00:32:06,833 --> 00:32:09,466 {\an1}nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapor, 671 00:32:09,500 --> 00:32:14,600 {\an1}along with some carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides. 672 00:32:14,633 --> 00:32:16,933 {\an1}The hot gases rapidly expand, 673 00:32:16,966 --> 00:32:19,233 {\an1}creating a supersonic shockwave 674 00:32:19,266 --> 00:32:23,000 {\an1}traveling at about two miles per second. 675 00:32:23,033 --> 00:32:26,233 {\an1}If you look at justthe nitrogen atoms of the ANFO, 676 00:32:26,266 --> 00:32:29,066 {\an1}it's like the un-Haber process. 677 00:32:29,100 --> 00:32:32,800 {\an1}Most of the nitrogens from the ammonium ions and nitrate ions 678 00:32:32,833 --> 00:32:38,900 {\an1}reunite into their more stable preferred state, N2. 679 00:32:38,933 --> 00:32:41,700 {\an8}(loud explosion) 680 00:32:41,733 --> 00:32:44,766 {\an8}In fact, about half of the power of the ANFO explosion 681 00:32:44,800 --> 00:32:46,700 {\an1}comes from nitrogen atoms 682 00:32:46,733 --> 00:32:49,000 reforming into nitrogen molecules. 683 00:32:49,033 --> 00:32:50,933 ♪ 684 00:32:50,966 --> 00:32:54,433 {\an1}Here we are, what, a quarter of a mile away? 685 00:32:54,466 --> 00:32:56,466 {\an1}And you could feelthe ground shaking. 686 00:32:56,500 --> 00:32:58,466 {\an3}Yup.And that's 50 pounds. 687 00:32:58,500 --> 00:32:59,933 {\an1}That's only 50 pounds, yes. 688 00:32:59,966 --> 00:33:03,533 POGUE: Next up: you've seen it in movies... 689 00:33:03,566 --> 00:33:06,500 (explosions) 690 00:33:06,533 --> 00:33:09,066 {\an1}...and you probably even know its name. 691 00:33:09,100 --> 00:33:10,966 {\an1}What's that? That's C-4. 692 00:33:11,000 --> 00:33:15,066 {\an1}(gunshot, loud explosions) 693 00:33:15,100 --> 00:33:17,933 POGUE: And just one look at its active ingredient 694 00:33:17,966 --> 00:33:20,533 should tell you we've upped our game. 695 00:33:20,566 --> 00:33:23,333 Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine-- 696 00:33:23,366 --> 00:33:27,433 {\an7}commonly known as RDX. 697 00:33:27,466 --> 00:33:29,333 {\an7}While it has three nitro groups, 698 00:33:29,366 --> 00:33:33,000 {\an7}there's even more nitrogen built into its ring. 699 00:33:33,033 --> 00:33:35,233 And even though the nitrogen triple bond 700 00:33:35,266 --> 00:33:37,666 {\an1}is one of the strongest in nature, 701 00:33:37,700 --> 00:33:40,900 {\an1}the single bonds between the nitrogen in the ring 702 00:33:40,933 --> 00:33:44,333 {\an1}and the nitro groups are rather weak, 703 00:33:44,366 --> 00:33:47,566 {\an1}often the first to fail when detonated. 704 00:33:47,600 --> 00:33:49,333 ♪ 705 00:33:49,366 --> 00:33:53,733 Oh my... 706 00:33:53,766 --> 00:33:55,133 The last one for the day for us. 707 00:33:55,166 --> 00:33:57,633 Ah, yeah, 50 pounds of C-4. 708 00:33:57,666 --> 00:33:58,666 POGUE:All right. 709 00:33:58,700 --> 00:34:00,000 (chuckles) 710 00:34:00,033 --> 00:34:03,333 Should I be offended that...they've dressed him like me? 711 00:34:03,366 --> 00:34:05,833 (laughing):Is there a hidden messagein that? 712 00:34:05,866 --> 00:34:08,433 {\an1}I wouldn't take it personal but... you know. 713 00:34:08,466 --> 00:34:09,466 {\an1}(chuckling):All right. 714 00:34:09,500 --> 00:34:14,633 (whip cracking, Western music playing) 715 00:34:14,666 --> 00:34:15,700 (record scratch) 716 00:34:15,733 --> 00:34:19,066 Oh wait,I've gotta go do that... 717 00:34:19,100 --> 00:34:20,300 {\an1}Oh, but it looked so cool! 718 00:34:20,333 --> 00:34:22,200 {\an7}I know, I know... 719 00:34:22,233 --> 00:34:24,533 MYRKLE: Charging. 720 00:34:24,566 --> 00:34:25,866 Okay, here we go. 721 00:34:25,900 --> 00:34:27,833 Three, two, one. 722 00:34:27,866 --> 00:34:29,566 (loud explosion) 723 00:34:31,000 --> 00:34:32,866 {\an1}(distant explosion echoes) 724 00:34:32,900 --> 00:34:34,600 {\an1}(laughing): Oh, my God! 725 00:34:34,633 --> 00:34:37,766 {\an8}(loud explosion) 726 00:34:37,800 --> 00:34:41,033 POGUE: When the detonation pressure wave hits the RDX molecule, 727 00:34:41,066 --> 00:34:45,366 {\an1}the ring compresses and then flies apart. 728 00:34:45,400 --> 00:34:49,066 {\an1}The atoms recombine into carbon monoxide, water vapor, 729 00:34:49,100 --> 00:34:50,866 {\an1}and nitrogen gas. 730 00:34:50,900 --> 00:34:54,366 {\an1}Those reactions produce far more heat than ANFO does, 731 00:34:54,400 --> 00:34:57,166 {\an1}which makes the gases expand much more rapidly, 732 00:34:57,200 --> 00:35:03,333 {\an1}giving RDX over twice the explosive power. 733 00:35:03,366 --> 00:35:06,033 PLEVA:So we have more heat and energy in there. 734 00:35:06,066 --> 00:35:08,100 And there's more nitrogenin there. 735 00:35:08,133 --> 00:35:09,933 Exactly. 736 00:35:09,966 --> 00:35:12,166 {\an8}(loud explosion) 737 00:35:12,200 --> 00:35:15,500 POGUE: Does that mean that the future is just all nitrogen? 738 00:35:15,533 --> 00:35:16,733 That is the goal. 739 00:35:16,766 --> 00:35:20,133 We are trying to make entirely nitrogen-composed 740 00:35:20,166 --> 00:35:21,633 explosive molecules. 741 00:35:21,666 --> 00:35:24,833 POGUE: Here's one from the drawing boards with a great name: 742 00:35:24,866 --> 00:35:27,133 {\an8}octaazacubane. 743 00:35:27,166 --> 00:35:28,433 {\an7}Entirely made of nitrogen, 744 00:35:28,466 --> 00:35:31,700 {\an1}it is predicted to havea faster velocity of detonation 745 00:35:31,733 --> 00:35:34,933 {\an1}than any known non-nuclear explosive... 746 00:35:34,966 --> 00:35:40,133 {\an1}if someone can just figure out how to make it. 747 00:35:40,166 --> 00:35:44,366 {\an1}I think that's all that's left. 748 00:35:44,400 --> 00:35:48,800 {\an1}And so ends our day of the un-Haber-Bosch process. 749 00:35:48,833 --> 00:35:49,933 ♪ 750 00:35:49,966 --> 00:35:52,100 {\an1}Much of the nitrogen in our explosives 751 00:35:52,133 --> 00:35:54,333 {\an1}has returned to its happy, 752 00:35:54,366 --> 00:35:57,200 {\an1}or at least extremely inert, state, 753 00:35:57,233 --> 00:36:01,766 {\an1}as N2 molecules in the atmosphere over New Mexico. 754 00:36:01,800 --> 00:36:04,400 {\an1}(Western music playing) 755 00:36:04,433 --> 00:36:08,666 {\an7}In chemistry, reactions tend to consume other ingredients, 756 00:36:08,700 --> 00:36:10,933 {\an7}transforming them into something new. 757 00:36:10,966 --> 00:36:13,533 {\an1}That's the process that chemical equations 758 00:36:13,566 --> 00:36:15,333 {\an1}are designed to explain. 759 00:36:15,366 --> 00:36:19,266 {\an1}But in biology, moleculescan sometimes bind to each other 760 00:36:19,300 --> 00:36:22,666 {\an1}without consuming or producing anything new. 761 00:36:22,700 --> 00:36:25,400 {\an1}They can act as triggers or messengers. 762 00:36:25,433 --> 00:36:31,933 {\an1}Or, as it's sometimes described,like a key fitting into a lock. 763 00:36:33,600 --> 00:36:36,266 ♪ 764 00:36:36,300 --> 00:36:38,100 {\an1}To learn more about molecular "locks and keys," 765 00:36:38,133 --> 00:36:41,866 {\an1}I've come to experience them viscerally. 766 00:36:41,900 --> 00:36:43,133 Mmm... (laughing) 767 00:36:43,166 --> 00:36:44,766 (coughs) Oh! Wow! 768 00:36:44,800 --> 00:36:48,133 ...here at the Berks Pepper Jam, in Bethel, Pennsylvania. 769 00:36:48,166 --> 00:36:49,833 {\an8}Smell that! Mm! 770 00:36:49,866 --> 00:36:51,733 {\an8}POGUE: An annual festival of food, 771 00:36:51,766 --> 00:36:55,200 {\an1}entertainment, and contests... 772 00:36:55,233 --> 00:36:58,633 {\an1}all centered on chili peppers. 773 00:36:58,666 --> 00:37:00,166 Reaper Evil hot sauce. 774 00:37:00,200 --> 00:37:01,800 {\an1}They do have an ambulance on hand, right? 775 00:37:01,833 --> 00:37:03,700 They do. 776 00:37:03,733 --> 00:37:06,300 POGUE: When it comes to peppers, I'm a novice. 777 00:37:06,333 --> 00:37:09,700 {\an1}But the first thing you needto know is that the black pepper 778 00:37:09,733 --> 00:37:12,733 {\an1}you see sitting with salt, and chili peppers, 779 00:37:12,766 --> 00:37:16,400 {\an1}have different chemistries and histories. 780 00:37:16,433 --> 00:37:18,100 ♪ 781 00:37:18,133 --> 00:37:20,300 {\an1}Black pepper is the dried ground-up fruit 782 00:37:20,333 --> 00:37:24,500 {\an1}of a flowering vine native to Asia. 783 00:37:24,533 --> 00:37:29,466 {\an7}Its kick comes mainly from the molecule piperine. 784 00:37:29,500 --> 00:37:33,066 {\an1}While one side of the world had black pepper, 785 00:37:33,100 --> 00:37:34,700 {\an1}the other side had chili peppers-- 786 00:37:34,733 --> 00:37:36,600 {\an1}first domesticated by Mesoamericans, 787 00:37:36,633 --> 00:37:41,266 {\an1}and then traded around the world by European explorers. 788 00:37:41,300 --> 00:37:44,666 {\an1}The main active ingredient in chili peppers 789 00:37:44,700 --> 00:37:47,500 {\an7}is the molecule capsaicin. 790 00:37:47,533 --> 00:37:49,933 {\an7}More on that in a bit. 791 00:37:49,966 --> 00:37:54,266 {\an1}Three, two, one-- eat! 792 00:37:54,300 --> 00:37:56,266 POGUE: The Jam features a pepper-eating contest... 793 00:37:56,300 --> 00:38:00,400 for kids, but they wouldn't let me in. 794 00:38:00,433 --> 00:38:03,833 {\an1}So I plan on entering the one for adults... 795 00:38:03,866 --> 00:38:06,400 {\an1}after I get some advice. 796 00:38:06,433 --> 00:38:09,033 {\an1}I've actually never eaten a pepper by itself. 797 00:38:09,066 --> 00:38:10,900 {\an1}Bow out when you feel you should. 798 00:38:10,933 --> 00:38:12,033 Really? 799 00:38:12,066 --> 00:38:14,400 A raw pepper is a completely different deal. 800 00:38:14,433 --> 00:38:15,533 I can't do it. 801 00:38:15,566 --> 00:38:16,666 You can't eat a reaper?! 802 00:38:16,700 --> 00:38:18,033 POGUE:Is there any wayI can prepare? 803 00:38:18,066 --> 00:38:19,100 {\an1}Well, drink water... 804 00:38:19,133 --> 00:38:20,600 {\an1}You got your will made out?(David laughs) 805 00:38:20,633 --> 00:38:23,433 {\an1}You don't have anything to dofor the next three days, do you? 806 00:38:23,466 --> 00:38:24,866 {\an1}MAN:Yeah, you're going to feel greatMonday morning. 807 00:38:24,900 --> 00:38:26,466 {\an1}(laughter) 808 00:38:26,500 --> 00:38:27,933 EMCEE: A big round of applause for Lizzie. 809 00:38:27,966 --> 00:38:29,400 Well done! 810 00:38:29,433 --> 00:38:31,166 {\an1}(cheers and applause) 811 00:38:31,200 --> 00:38:34,000 {\an8}POGUE: Time to put my tongue to the test. 812 00:38:34,033 --> 00:38:36,733 {\an8}MAN:Long hots, red Fresno... 813 00:38:36,766 --> 00:38:38,333 POGUE: Here's how the contest works: 814 00:38:38,366 --> 00:38:41,466 {\an7}there are ten rounds of increasingly hot peppers... 815 00:38:41,500 --> 00:38:44,100 {\an7}Peach Copenhagen... 816 00:38:44,133 --> 00:38:45,333 Big Red Mama. 817 00:38:45,366 --> 00:38:47,666 POGUE: ...their spiciness measured on a scale 818 00:38:47,700 --> 00:38:52,200 {\an1}invented in 1912 by pharmacist Wilbur Scoville. 819 00:38:52,233 --> 00:38:56,466 {\an1}It estimates the amount of capsaicin in each pepper. 820 00:38:56,500 --> 00:39:00,766 {\an1}Contestants have to eat a pepper... 821 00:39:00,800 --> 00:39:03,033 {\an1}and then wait two-and-a-half minutes 822 00:39:03,066 --> 00:39:04,700 {\an1}to allow the burn to grow. 823 00:39:04,733 --> 00:39:06,666 {\an1}If they drink the milk in front of them-- 824 00:39:06,700 --> 00:39:09,766 {\an1}a popular way to douse a tongue on fire... 825 00:39:09,800 --> 00:39:11,533 They are eliminated. 826 00:39:11,566 --> 00:39:12,933 POGUE: They're out. 827 00:39:12,966 --> 00:39:16,733 {\an1}My competitors includesome rugged-looking characters. 828 00:39:16,766 --> 00:39:17,766 {\an1}And Leah... 829 00:39:17,800 --> 00:39:18,800 LEAH: I've never done this before. 830 00:39:18,833 --> 00:39:20,733 {\an1}I figured this out two hours ago. 831 00:39:20,766 --> 00:39:23,300 POGUE: ...a 15-year-old who entered with the permission 832 00:39:23,333 --> 00:39:25,566 of her parents. (cheers and applause) 833 00:39:25,600 --> 00:39:27,100 {\an1}Whoo! Bring it on! 834 00:39:27,133 --> 00:39:28,433 EMCEE: We begin our contest 835 00:39:28,466 --> 00:39:29,833 {\an1}with the long hots... 836 00:39:31,066 --> 00:39:32,700 {\an1}Let's turn up the heat! 837 00:39:32,733 --> 00:39:34,333 {\an9}Eat! 838 00:39:34,366 --> 00:39:37,333 POGUE: And we're off! 839 00:39:37,366 --> 00:39:39,633 {\an1}Zesty, with just a hint of poison. 840 00:39:39,666 --> 00:39:41,600 {\an1}EMCEE: Round two we're going to start 841 00:39:41,633 --> 00:39:43,700 {\an1}with the red Fresno pepper. 842 00:39:43,733 --> 00:39:45,866 {\an1}Eat! Eat! Eat!Eat! Eat! Eat! 843 00:39:45,900 --> 00:39:48,533 {\an1}There's got to be some easier way to learn about molecules. 844 00:39:48,566 --> 00:39:52,800 {\an5}EMCEE: All right, are we ready? Eat! 845 00:39:52,833 --> 00:39:55,866 {\an5}That was not designed for human consumption. 846 00:39:55,900 --> 00:39:59,066 {\an4}EMCEE: Round number four: habanero peppers. 847 00:40:00,100 --> 00:40:01,700 {\an4}POGUE: Parts of my body 848 00:40:01,733 --> 00:40:03,566 {\an4}I didn't know I had are on fire. 849 00:40:03,600 --> 00:40:04,700 EMCEE: Ten more seconds. You got this. 850 00:40:04,733 --> 00:40:05,766 POGUE: I can't, I can't. 851 00:40:05,800 --> 00:40:10,166 EMCEE:: No! Don't do it! No! 852 00:40:10,200 --> 00:40:13,966 {\an5}EMCEE: The orange Copenhagen pepper. 853 00:40:14,000 --> 00:40:15,866 {\an5}Eat! 854 00:40:15,900 --> 00:40:18,966 {\an1}What am I doing?! 855 00:40:19,000 --> 00:40:20,166 Oh man... 856 00:40:20,200 --> 00:40:21,400 Oh my God! 857 00:40:21,433 --> 00:40:22,366 (coughing) 858 00:40:22,400 --> 00:40:23,933 Don't do it! I want it! 859 00:40:23,966 --> 00:40:27,000 {\an1}Wherever you are, Scoville... I hope you rot! 860 00:40:28,100 --> 00:40:29,766 {\an1}(steam whistling) 861 00:40:29,800 --> 00:40:33,400 Cheers! No! 862 00:40:33,433 --> 00:40:35,033 POGUE: So I'm the first to fall... 863 00:40:35,066 --> 00:40:36,933 {\an1}(cheers and applause) Thank you. 864 00:40:36,966 --> 00:40:38,766 Is there a Port-A-Potty? 865 00:40:38,800 --> 00:40:40,266 But there's a bigger mystery... 866 00:40:40,300 --> 00:40:45,433 {\an1}How does a pepper's capsaicinconvince my mouth it's on fire? 867 00:40:45,466 --> 00:40:47,200 {\an1}Not recommended. 868 00:40:48,533 --> 00:40:50,566 {\an1}I think I'll find the answer here 869 00:40:50,600 --> 00:40:54,933 {\an1}at Penn State University's Department of Food Science. 870 00:40:54,966 --> 00:40:56,100 {\an1}We all study food. 871 00:40:56,133 --> 00:40:57,700 {\an1}So you have psychologists,and microbiologists... 872 00:40:57,733 --> 00:41:00,666 POGUE: I'm here to see John Hayes. 873 00:41:00,700 --> 00:41:03,500 {\an1}He knows a thing or two about the active ingredient 874 00:41:03,533 --> 00:41:05,866 in these. 875 00:41:05,900 --> 00:41:09,166 HAYES: So when you went and tasted them, what did you experience? 876 00:41:09,200 --> 00:41:10,166 Oh, man. 877 00:41:10,200 --> 00:41:12,033 My gut twisted, 878 00:41:12,066 --> 00:41:13,766 {\an1}my tongue burned, 879 00:41:13,800 --> 00:41:15,133 {\an1}my flesh burned, I cried, 880 00:41:15,166 --> 00:41:17,166 {\an1}I got red, my nose ran. 881 00:41:17,200 --> 00:41:21,300 (echoing):It's like putting your tongue onthe stove and leaving it there. 882 00:41:21,333 --> 00:41:23,333 HAYES: That was an aversive response. 883 00:41:23,366 --> 00:41:27,966 {\an7}This plant has evolved a chemical called capsaicin. 884 00:41:28,000 --> 00:41:30,000 {\an7}And the reason it makes that 885 00:41:30,033 --> 00:41:33,033 {\an7}is to keep animalsfrom eating the chili pepper. 886 00:41:33,066 --> 00:41:36,766 {\an8}(laughing): Oh man, the chili festival people never got that message. 887 00:41:36,800 --> 00:41:38,666 And we're just a really stupid species? 888 00:41:38,700 --> 00:41:39,866 {\an1}Exactly. 889 00:41:39,900 --> 00:41:42,200 {\an1}We're one of the only speciesthat learns to like 890 00:41:42,233 --> 00:41:43,700 {\an1}that sensation. 891 00:41:43,733 --> 00:41:47,466 POGUE: Ultimately, pepper plantsare playing a pretty good trick 892 00:41:47,500 --> 00:41:49,433 on humans as well. 893 00:41:49,466 --> 00:41:53,666 {\an1}Capsaicin really is a "key" ingredient. 894 00:41:53,700 --> 00:41:57,366 {\an1}It has a long spindly tail attached to a ring. 895 00:41:57,400 --> 00:42:01,233 HAYES: That ring end fits into a specific receptor 896 00:42:01,266 --> 00:42:03,033 that's expressed all overyour body. 897 00:42:03,066 --> 00:42:04,333 Not just our tongue? 898 00:42:04,366 --> 00:42:06,300 Not just your tongue. (chuckling): Oh man. 899 00:42:06,333 --> 00:42:11,033 This receptor, this lock,is actually a heat pain sensor. 900 00:42:11,066 --> 00:42:16,100 POGUE: Normally the receptor, called TRPV1, 901 00:42:16,133 --> 00:42:18,200 {\an1}activates when it comes in contact with something 902 00:42:18,233 --> 00:42:21,700 {\an1}over 106 degrees. 903 00:42:21,733 --> 00:42:24,466 {\an1}The result is a pain message to the brain. 904 00:42:24,500 --> 00:42:27,500 {\an1}"Ouch! Something's hot!" (whistling) 905 00:42:27,533 --> 00:42:30,300 {\an1}It's a warning signal to tell your body, "Danger." 906 00:42:30,333 --> 00:42:32,966 POGUE: And here's the tricky part: 907 00:42:33,000 --> 00:42:36,366 {\an1}when you eat peppers, those capsaicin keys 908 00:42:36,400 --> 00:42:39,633 {\an1}fit into the heat pain receptors in your mouth, 909 00:42:39,666 --> 00:42:42,600 {\an1}altering their sensitivity. 910 00:42:42,633 --> 00:42:45,500 {\an1}And so, what the capsaicin doesis it fits into 911 00:42:45,533 --> 00:42:47,133 {\an1}this molecular thermometer, 912 00:42:47,166 --> 00:42:49,733 {\an1}and it lowers the temperatureat which it activates it. 913 00:42:49,766 --> 00:42:52,833 POGUE: Like a changed thermostat, 914 00:42:52,866 --> 00:42:56,033 {\an1}they now activate at body temperature, 915 00:42:56,066 --> 00:42:58,933 {\an1}sending a false signal that'sidentical to the one your brain 916 00:42:58,966 --> 00:43:04,466 {\an1}would receive if you atesomething literally burning hot. 917 00:43:04,500 --> 00:43:07,466 {\an1}It lowers the temperatureat which we feel burning pain... 918 00:43:07,500 --> 00:43:10,200 {\an1}Yes. ...but it's not actually burning us? 919 00:43:10,233 --> 00:43:13,000 Correct. It's not... I'm not going to see scar tissue... 920 00:43:13,033 --> 00:43:15,866 {\an4}No. No matter how hot it is, it's all a fake-out? 921 00:43:15,900 --> 00:43:17,466 Absolutely. 922 00:43:17,500 --> 00:43:18,466 (applause) 923 00:43:18,500 --> 00:43:19,533 EMCEE: Up next... 924 00:43:19,566 --> 00:43:21,800 {\an1}the Yellow Seven Pot pepper. 925 00:43:21,833 --> 00:43:24,966 POGUE: Back in Bethel, the pepper-eating contest 926 00:43:25,000 --> 00:43:26,866 {\an1}is entering its final rounds. 927 00:43:26,900 --> 00:43:29,433 EMCEE: Eat! 928 00:43:29,466 --> 00:43:31,866 That was warm. 929 00:43:31,900 --> 00:43:33,633 {\an1}Oh, it's burning now. 930 00:43:33,666 --> 00:43:35,833 {\an1}I'm trying to think of a happy place. 931 00:43:35,866 --> 00:43:37,066 {\an1}I can't find one. 932 00:43:37,100 --> 00:43:39,666 POGUE: Evidence that capsaicin's working on 933 00:43:39,700 --> 00:43:42,000 {\an1}the molecular locks of everyone's heat pain sensors 934 00:43:42,033 --> 00:43:45,166 is easy to see, 935 00:43:45,200 --> 00:43:48,300 {\an1}as they eat a Big Red Mama, 936 00:43:48,333 --> 00:43:52,266 {\an1}rated at over a million Scoville heat units. 937 00:43:52,300 --> 00:43:53,800 EMCEE: Don't tap out now! 938 00:43:53,833 --> 00:43:55,666 Don't tap out! 939 00:43:55,700 --> 00:43:59,066 POGUE: One more falls. 940 00:43:59,100 --> 00:44:01,700 {\an1}We're down to the final four. 941 00:44:01,733 --> 00:44:03,600 {\an4}(cheers and applause) EMCEE: I'm ready to leave. 942 00:44:03,633 --> 00:44:05,766 (laughing): I can't abuse these people anymore. 943 00:44:05,800 --> 00:44:10,666 POGUE: This time, the organizer adds concentrated pepper extract. 944 00:44:10,700 --> 00:44:15,366 ♪ 945 00:44:15,400 --> 00:44:18,866 {\an1}How long can this go on? 946 00:44:18,900 --> 00:44:22,066 (crying) 947 00:44:22,100 --> 00:44:25,633 {\an1}Then suddenly a resolution that no one saw coming. 948 00:44:25,666 --> 00:44:27,233 {\an1}(cheers and applause) 949 00:44:27,266 --> 00:44:28,633 EMCEE: Whoa! 950 00:44:28,666 --> 00:44:31,133 Leah beat 'em! 951 00:44:31,166 --> 00:44:32,900 {\an1}(cheers and applause) 952 00:44:32,933 --> 00:44:34,833 {\an1}Big round of applause! 953 00:44:34,866 --> 00:44:36,700 {\an1}Big round of applause. 954 00:44:36,733 --> 00:44:38,466 Leah, I am not worthy. 955 00:44:38,500 --> 00:44:40,000 You rock! 956 00:44:40,033 --> 00:44:43,366 {\an1}What does a woman with that fortitude and strength 957 00:44:43,400 --> 00:44:45,100 {\an1}want to be when she grows up? 958 00:44:45,133 --> 00:44:46,466 A fighter pilot. (laughs) 959 00:44:46,500 --> 00:44:48,433 Why am I not surprised? 960 00:44:48,466 --> 00:44:50,000 (laughing) (sighs) 961 00:44:51,633 --> 00:44:55,433 POGUE: Ultimately, the capsaicin molecule is an illusionist, 962 00:44:55,466 --> 00:44:57,100 able to trick my nervous system 963 00:44:57,133 --> 00:45:00,300 {\an1}into thinking my mouth is on fire. 964 00:45:00,333 --> 00:45:04,666 {\an1}But what about the molecules that pose real danger? 965 00:45:04,700 --> 00:45:09,266 {\an1}Molecules designed by nature to kill? 966 00:45:09,300 --> 00:45:13,333 {\an1}Time to meet my first professor of venoms-- 967 00:45:13,366 --> 00:45:16,366 Mandeë Holford of Hunter College. 968 00:45:20,100 --> 00:45:22,266 Now, I couldn't help noticing, 969 00:45:22,300 --> 00:45:24,200 there's a huge, terrifyingtarantula on me. 970 00:45:24,233 --> 00:45:26,166 Is she poisonous? 971 00:45:26,200 --> 00:45:27,166 No, no, 972 00:45:27,200 --> 00:45:29,100 {\an1}she's not poisonous.Oh, whew! 973 00:45:29,133 --> 00:45:33,900 {\an7}She is, however, venomous, and could still be lethal. 974 00:45:33,933 --> 00:45:36,500 {\an7}Thanks for bringing that up. (laughing) 975 00:45:36,533 --> 00:45:38,866 {\an7}Poisonous and venomousdon't mean the same thing? 976 00:45:38,900 --> 00:45:39,966 No, no, no, not at all. 977 00:45:40,000 --> 00:45:43,133 POGUE: Poisonous versus venomous: 978 00:45:43,166 --> 00:45:45,600 {\an1}it all comes down to the delivery system. 979 00:45:45,633 --> 00:45:50,100 {\an1}If you bite it and get sick, it's poisonous. 980 00:45:50,133 --> 00:45:54,800 {\an1}But if it bites youand you get sick, it's venomous. 981 00:45:54,833 --> 00:45:59,433 {\an1}In general, the source of their toxins is different as well. 982 00:45:59,466 --> 00:46:03,766 {\an1}This poison dart frog becomes poisonous from its diet. 983 00:46:03,800 --> 00:46:07,300 {\an1}If raised in captivity on different foods, 984 00:46:07,333 --> 00:46:09,666 {\an1}it can become non-toxic. 985 00:46:09,700 --> 00:46:11,533 {\an1}(tail rattling, snake hissing) 986 00:46:11,566 --> 00:46:14,833 {\an1}Whereas this rattlesnake generates its own venom. 987 00:46:14,866 --> 00:46:17,133 {\an1}It's built into its DNA. 988 00:46:17,166 --> 00:46:19,566 So snakes, 989 00:46:19,600 --> 00:46:21,066 scorpions, 990 00:46:21,100 --> 00:46:22,966 spiders-- 991 00:46:23,000 --> 00:46:26,566 {\an1}which fearsome creature is the focus of Mandeë's work? 992 00:46:26,600 --> 00:46:28,433 Killer... 993 00:46:28,466 --> 00:46:31,933 ...snails? 994 00:46:31,966 --> 00:46:35,133 {\an1}Is it accurate to say that you study killer snails? 995 00:46:35,166 --> 00:46:36,933 {\an1}(imitating stabbing sound) 996 00:46:36,966 --> 00:46:40,100 {\an7}Killer snails are actually my affectionate term 997 00:46:40,133 --> 00:46:42,166 {\an7}for venomous marine snails. 998 00:46:42,200 --> 00:46:44,366 {\an7}And so these are snails that live in the sea, 999 00:46:44,400 --> 00:46:45,366 {\an1}and they have a venom, 1000 00:46:45,400 --> 00:46:48,900 {\an1}like snakes or scorpions or spiders, 1001 00:46:48,933 --> 00:46:52,266 {\an1}and the venom can be very lethal to humans. 1002 00:46:52,300 --> 00:46:55,333 POGUE: It's true that the snail can kill you. 1003 00:46:55,366 --> 00:46:58,500 {\an1}But usually it's just looking for dinner-- 1004 00:46:58,533 --> 00:47:00,533 {\an1}a worm or a fish. 1005 00:47:00,566 --> 00:47:01,800 So I'm a fish. 1006 00:47:01,833 --> 00:47:03,133 {\an1}What happens to me? 1007 00:47:03,166 --> 00:47:05,900 Well, what happens is this guy will smell 1008 00:47:05,933 --> 00:47:07,200 that you're in the water, right? 1009 00:47:07,233 --> 00:47:09,533 {\an1}He puts out something called a siphon, 1010 00:47:09,566 --> 00:47:12,366 {\an1}and it's a chemosensory organ. 1011 00:47:12,400 --> 00:47:14,266 Smells that,"Hmm, tasty meal in the water." 1012 00:47:14,300 --> 00:47:16,266 {\an1}Then it sticks out something like a tongue, 1013 00:47:16,300 --> 00:47:19,233 {\an1}it's called a false tongue, proboscis. 1014 00:47:19,266 --> 00:47:22,233 {\an1}And on the tip of the tongue, it has a little tooth, 1015 00:47:22,266 --> 00:47:23,366 {\an1}filled with venom 1016 00:47:23,400 --> 00:47:26,500 {\an1}that then will get injected into the fish. 1017 00:47:26,533 --> 00:47:29,233 {\an1}The fish instantly will become paralyzed, 1018 00:47:29,266 --> 00:47:32,533 {\an1}depending on what cocktailof venom gets injected into it, 1019 00:47:32,566 --> 00:47:34,500 {\an1}the snail will then open its mouth really wide, 1020 00:47:34,533 --> 00:47:39,666 {\an1}swallow the fish whole and have a really nice, tasty meal. 1021 00:47:39,700 --> 00:47:41,000 ♪ 1022 00:47:41,033 --> 00:47:43,033 {\an1}The whole thing sounds so improbable. 1023 00:47:43,066 --> 00:47:44,633 I love it.(laughs) 1024 00:47:44,666 --> 00:47:46,633 Just when you think you've heard of everything, 1025 00:47:46,666 --> 00:47:48,933 {\an1}nature will surprise you with something new. 1026 00:47:48,966 --> 00:47:50,200 ♪ 1027 00:47:50,233 --> 00:47:53,100 POGUE: So what's in that paralyzing venom? 1028 00:47:53,133 --> 00:47:54,533 To find out, Mandeë and her team 1029 00:47:54,566 --> 00:47:57,266 {\an1}collect specimens from around the world. 1030 00:47:57,300 --> 00:47:59,633 ♪ 1031 00:47:59,666 --> 00:48:01,133 Back at the lab, 1032 00:48:01,166 --> 00:48:05,300 {\an1}they analyze tissue samples from the snail's muscular foot 1033 00:48:05,333 --> 00:48:08,133 {\an1}and its venom gland. 1034 00:48:08,166 --> 00:48:10,633 GORSON: So we're eventually going to look at the DNA, 1035 00:48:10,666 --> 00:48:13,366 {\an7}so we can make a species identification. 1036 00:48:13,400 --> 00:48:15,433 {\an7}And that we can use the foot tissue for. 1037 00:48:15,466 --> 00:48:17,033 {\an7}And then the venom gland tissue, 1038 00:48:17,066 --> 00:48:19,533 {\an1}we can use to look for the individual 1039 00:48:19,566 --> 00:48:23,033 {\an1}venom toxins within the venom duct. 1040 00:48:23,066 --> 00:48:24,566 ♪ 1041 00:48:24,600 --> 00:48:26,633 POGUE:Turns out the cone snail's venom 1042 00:48:26,666 --> 00:48:29,400 isn't one thing, but a cocktail 1043 00:48:29,433 --> 00:48:33,333 {\an1}of as many as 250 short "mini" proteins, 1044 00:48:33,366 --> 00:48:36,433 {\an1}also called peptides. 1045 00:48:36,466 --> 00:48:37,700 {\an1}So if you think of venom, 1046 00:48:37,733 --> 00:48:42,233 {\an1}think of it not as like a single bullet, right? 1047 00:48:42,266 --> 00:48:45,000 {\an1}It's more like I like to describe it as a cluster bomb. 1048 00:48:45,033 --> 00:48:46,766 (laughing) It's a series of bullets 1049 00:48:46,800 --> 00:48:50,733 {\an1}coming at you and each individual bullet has a target 1050 00:48:50,766 --> 00:48:52,566 {\an1}in the physiological system. 1051 00:48:52,600 --> 00:48:58,333 POGUE: Each venom peptide has evolvedto mount a very specific attack, 1052 00:48:58,366 --> 00:49:04,366 {\an1}often acting as keys that fit a cell's lock-like receptors. 1053 00:49:04,400 --> 00:49:06,466 In the case of the nervous system, 1054 00:49:06,500 --> 00:49:08,566 that can prevent a specific neuron 1055 00:49:08,600 --> 00:49:11,200 {\an1}from transmitting an impulse. 1056 00:49:11,233 --> 00:49:13,866 Or, conversely, jam the neuron open, 1057 00:49:13,900 --> 00:49:17,400 {\an1}generating a flood of signals. 1058 00:49:17,433 --> 00:49:18,666 ♪ 1059 00:49:18,700 --> 00:49:21,733 In the wild, all those targeted attacks 1060 00:49:21,766 --> 00:49:23,566 {\an1}paralyze the snail's prey, 1061 00:49:23,600 --> 00:49:26,966 {\an1}but the precision with which the venom peptides act 1062 00:49:27,000 --> 00:49:32,433 {\an1}also means that they may have another role as medicines. 1063 00:49:32,466 --> 00:49:35,633 {\an1}And so we study these venoms to try to figure out 1064 00:49:35,666 --> 00:49:39,300 {\an1}novel medicines for treating things in pain and cancer. 1065 00:49:39,333 --> 00:49:41,566 {\an1}Actually, they make great drugs 1066 00:49:41,600 --> 00:49:42,700 {\an1}because they're highly specific, 1067 00:49:42,733 --> 00:49:45,733 {\an1}very fast-acting, and very potent. 1068 00:49:45,766 --> 00:49:50,400 POGUE: A venom curing instead of killing? 1069 00:49:50,433 --> 00:49:53,000 {\an1}Wouldn't be the first time. 1070 00:49:53,033 --> 00:49:56,266 {\an1}There are currently at least seven drugs on the market 1071 00:49:56,300 --> 00:49:59,266 {\an1}developed out of the study of venoms. 1072 00:49:59,300 --> 00:50:03,500 {\an1}They include an anticoagulant derived from medicinal leeches 1073 00:50:03,533 --> 00:50:08,133 {\an7}and a diabetes medicine from gila monsters. 1074 00:50:08,166 --> 00:50:11,100 {\an1}There's even one already from cone snails, 1075 00:50:11,133 --> 00:50:14,933 {\an1}an analgesic to treat severe chronic pain. 1076 00:50:14,966 --> 00:50:18,200 HOLFORD:And it's the exact peptide that you would find in the venom. 1077 00:50:18,233 --> 00:50:21,433 {\an1}It's not a derivative of it, it's not a small molecule, 1078 00:50:21,466 --> 00:50:23,866 {\an1}it's exactly as nature expressed it 1079 00:50:23,900 --> 00:50:25,766 in the animal. 1080 00:50:25,800 --> 00:50:28,400 And I'll just runa simple DNA extraction... 1081 00:50:28,433 --> 00:50:32,833 POGUE: Mandeë's team has already made some major breakthroughs. 1082 00:50:32,866 --> 00:50:36,000 {\an1}So I could do a nano LCMS and see what's inside of here. 1083 00:50:36,033 --> 00:50:39,666 POGUE: In 2014, they identified a peptide from another 1084 00:50:39,700 --> 00:50:43,633 {\an1}venomous snail that attacks liver tumor cells, 1085 00:50:43,666 --> 00:50:45,233 {\an1}inhibiting their growth. 1086 00:50:45,266 --> 00:50:50,100 {\an1}It's cutting-edge work that'sreaping the rewards to be found 1087 00:50:50,133 --> 00:50:55,500 {\an1}at the intersection of chemistry and biology. 1088 00:50:55,533 --> 00:50:57,533 HOLFORD: Learning how the venom is used 1089 00:50:57,566 --> 00:51:01,300 {\an1}more in ecological settingshelps to further us in terms of 1090 00:51:01,333 --> 00:51:04,100 {\an1}how we understand how it can be applied for medicinal 1091 00:51:04,133 --> 00:51:06,266 {\an1}or therapeutic applications. 1092 00:51:06,300 --> 00:51:08,766 {\an1}And so right now, it's a fun time to be a venom scientist 1093 00:51:08,800 --> 00:51:10,933 {\an1}because those worlds are colliding. 1094 00:51:10,966 --> 00:51:12,400 ♪ 1095 00:51:12,433 --> 00:51:15,033 POGUE: In both chemistry and biology, 1096 00:51:15,066 --> 00:51:19,700 {\an7}change is a story told through reactions. 1097 00:51:19,733 --> 00:51:22,233 {\an7}And understanding those reactions 1098 00:51:22,266 --> 00:51:23,733 {\an1}has given us new insights 1099 00:51:23,766 --> 00:51:26,866 {\an1}into both our world and ourselves. 1100 00:51:26,900 --> 00:51:29,566 CUSSLER: If you lose this chemical reaction, 1101 00:51:29,600 --> 00:51:31,300 two billion people starve. 1102 00:51:31,333 --> 00:51:33,466 This is not a hypothetical issue. 1103 00:51:33,500 --> 00:51:35,700 ♪ 1104 00:51:35,733 --> 00:51:37,500 POGUE: And with that comes a lesson. 1105 00:51:37,533 --> 00:51:39,000 (laughing): Oh man! 1106 00:51:39,033 --> 00:51:42,400 {\an1}Just as a molecule can act as both a venom 1107 00:51:42,433 --> 00:51:45,000 {\an1}and a medicine... 1108 00:51:45,033 --> 00:51:49,066 {\an1}or one reaction can both help feed the world 1109 00:51:49,100 --> 00:51:50,933 {\an1}and blow it to bits... 1110 00:51:50,966 --> 00:51:52,133 (loud explosion) 1111 00:51:52,166 --> 00:51:54,533 {\an1}...our scientific knowledge is a powerful tool. 1112 00:51:54,566 --> 00:51:57,100 The power of bacon! 1113 00:51:57,133 --> 00:51:59,566 ♪ 1114 00:51:59,600 --> 00:52:03,133 {\an1}But it's up to us to learn how to use it well 1115 00:52:03,166 --> 00:52:07,200 {\an1}as we continue to go "Beyond the Elements." 1116 00:52:07,233 --> 00:52:10,233 ♪ 1117 00:52:32,900 --> 00:52:38,533 {\an8}♪ 1118 00:52:48,800 --> 00:52:53,000 {\an7}To order this program on DVD, visit ShopPBS 1119 00:52:53,033 --> 00:52:56,300 {\an7}or call 1-800-PLAY-PBS. 1120 00:52:56,333 --> 00:52:59,033 {\an7}Episodes of "NOVA" are available with Passport. 1121 00:52:59,066 --> 00:53:02,633 {\an7}"NOVA" is also available on Amazon Prime Video. 1122 00:53:02,666 --> 00:53:07,766 {\an8}♪