1
00:00:01,933 --> 00:00:05,000
DAVID POGUE:
Why do bombs go boom?

2
00:00:05,033 --> 00:00:06,933
{\an1}You have created fire!

3
00:00:06,966 --> 00:00:08,066
I could feel that puppy!

4
00:00:08,100 --> 00:00:10,933
How much gold is
in 400 tons of dirt?

5
00:00:10,966 --> 00:00:12,533
MIKE LASSITER:
There's about a million
and a half dollars there.

6
00:00:12,566 --> 00:00:14,400
Oh, man!

7
00:00:14,433 --> 00:00:15,733
{\an1}What's that gorilla doing there?

8
00:00:15,766 --> 00:00:17,800
POGUE:
And how come rare earths,

9
00:00:17,833 --> 00:00:20,133
{\an1}the metals that make
our gadgets go,

10
00:00:20,166 --> 00:00:21,800
{\an1}aren't that rare at all?

11
00:00:21,833 --> 00:00:22,900
{\an1}Watch out with the hammer.
What are you... ?

12
00:00:22,933 --> 00:00:25,000
{\an1}Oh yeah, cerium, lanthanum,
praseodymium.

13
00:00:25,033 --> 00:00:29,200
POGUE:
We live in a world of incredible
material variety.

14
00:00:29,233 --> 00:00:30,533
{\an1}Yet everything we know--

15
00:00:30,566 --> 00:00:34,166
{\an1}the stars, the planets,
and life itself--

16
00:00:34,200 --> 00:00:37,566
{\an1}comes from about 90 basic
building blocks.

17
00:00:37,600 --> 00:00:39,133
{\an1}You have a periodic table
table!

18
00:00:39,166 --> 00:00:43,733
All right here
on this remarkable chart:

19
00:00:43,766 --> 00:00:47,333
{\an1}the periodic table
of the elements.

20
00:00:47,366 --> 00:00:49,500
{\an1}It's a story that begins
with the Big Bang

21
00:00:49,533 --> 00:00:51,566
{\an1}and eventually leads to us.

22
00:00:51,600 --> 00:00:53,900
{\an1}And we're made almost entirely

23
00:00:53,933 --> 00:00:56,566
{\an1}of just a handful
of ingredients,

24
00:00:56,600 --> 00:01:01,633
{\an1}including one that burns with
secret fire inside us all.

25
00:01:01,666 --> 00:01:05,033
{\an1}Join me as I explore the basic
building blocks of the universe.

26
00:01:05,066 --> 00:01:06,600
(explosion)
Oh!

27
00:01:06,633 --> 00:01:08,966
{\an1}From some of the most common,
like oxygen...

28
00:01:09,000 --> 00:01:09,900
How do you feel
at this stage?

29
00:01:09,933 --> 00:01:11,100
POGUE:
...to the least--

30
00:01:11,133 --> 00:01:14,866
{\an1}man-made elements that last
only fractions of a second.

31
00:01:14,900 --> 00:01:18,200
Strange metals
with repellant powers.

32
00:01:18,233 --> 00:01:19,466
{\an1}And you're saying that this
will repel the sharks.

33
00:01:19,500 --> 00:01:20,933
{\an1}Oh my gosh!

34
00:01:20,966 --> 00:01:21,533
{\an1}Ugh!

35
00:01:21,566 --> 00:01:22,966
{\an1}Poisonous gases...

36
00:01:23,000 --> 00:01:24,133
{\an1}Isn't chlorine deadly?

37
00:01:24,166 --> 00:01:25,133
{\an3}MAN:
Absolutely.

38
00:01:25,166 --> 00:01:27,333
POGUE:
...in stuff we eat every day.

39
00:01:27,366 --> 00:01:30,500
{\an1}And now we can even see
what they're made of.

40
00:01:30,533 --> 00:01:31,933
{\an1}The dots are actual atoms?

41
00:01:31,966 --> 00:01:33,666
{\an1}If you're like me,

42
00:01:33,700 --> 00:01:36,200
{\an1}you care about the elements
and how they go together.

43
00:01:36,233 --> 00:01:37,433
Oh, the humanity!

44
00:01:37,466 --> 00:01:38,500
{\an1}Because more than ever...

45
00:01:38,533 --> 00:01:40,733
{\an1}Incoming neutron!

46
00:01:40,766 --> 00:01:43,033
{\an1}... matter matters.

47
00:01:43,066 --> 00:01:44,100
Copper is king.

48
00:01:44,133 --> 00:01:45,933
Commodities!
Copper at 80 cents a pound!

49
00:01:45,966 --> 00:01:47,533
{\an1}Can we crack the code...

50
00:01:47,566 --> 00:01:48,833
(bell rings)

51
00:01:48,866 --> 00:01:50,666
{\an1}...to build the world
of the future?

52
00:01:50,700 --> 00:01:54,333
{\an1}Join me on my hunt
for the elements.

53
00:01:54,366 --> 00:01:56,566
{\an1}Right now, on<i>NOVA.</i>

54
00:02:11,566 --> 00:02:14,966
{\an1}Major funding for<i>NOVA</i> 
is provided by the following:

55
00:02:23,366 --> 00:02:27,966
POGUE:
Far from prying eyes,
the ground erupts.

56
00:02:28,000 --> 00:02:31,000
{\an1}Heavy equipment moving millions
of tons of earth

57
00:02:31,033 --> 00:02:34,566
{\an1}in search of... something.

58
00:02:34,600 --> 00:02:38,133
{\an1}A secret deep underground.

59
00:02:40,633 --> 00:02:42,600
I'm David Pogue.

60
00:02:42,633 --> 00:02:46,800
{\an1}I've managed to talk my way
into this hidden lair.

61
00:02:46,833 --> 00:02:49,233
Probably almost a mile
from where we first came in.

62
00:02:49,266 --> 00:02:51,100
POGUE:
Boy, I hope I can talk
my way out.

63
00:02:51,133 --> 00:02:53,700
{\an1}MAN: This area here
has been back-filled.

64
00:02:53,733 --> 00:02:56,100
POGUE:
They tell me that so much money
flows out of this place,

65
00:02:56,133 --> 00:02:58,266
{\an1}it's like a gold mine.

66
00:02:59,233 --> 00:03:00,766
Wait a minute...

67
00:03:00,800 --> 00:03:03,533
{\an1}It<i>is</i>a gold mine!

68
00:03:03,566 --> 00:03:05,666
{\an1}But where's the gold?

69
00:03:05,700 --> 00:03:08,033
{\an1}It turns out that nature
has concealed

70
00:03:08,066 --> 00:03:09,833
{\an1}thousands of pounds of the stuff

71
00:03:09,866 --> 00:03:12,900
under billions
of cubic feet of earth.

72
00:03:12,933 --> 00:03:17,000
{\an1}By digging, these guys are
hoping to strike it rich.

73
00:03:17,033 --> 00:03:19,433
{\an1}But that's not why I'm here.

74
00:03:19,466 --> 00:03:22,366
{\an1}I'm on a quest to understand

75
00:03:22,400 --> 00:03:25,233
{\an1}the basic building blocks
of everyday matter.

76
00:03:25,266 --> 00:03:28,500
They're called
the elements.

77
00:03:28,533 --> 00:03:30,566
{\an1}These symbols represent
the atoms

78
00:03:30,600 --> 00:03:34,100
{\an1}that make up every single thing
in our universe.

79
00:03:34,133 --> 00:03:38,800
{\an1}118 unique substances arranged
on an amazing chart

80
00:03:38,833 --> 00:03:41,200
{\an1}that reveals their
hidden secrets

81
00:03:41,233 --> 00:03:43,800
{\an1}to anyone who knows
how to read it.

82
00:03:43,833 --> 00:03:47,966
{\an1}It's a journey that dives deep
into the metals of civilization,

83
00:03:48,000 --> 00:03:53,733
{\an1}marvels at the mysteries
of the extremely reactive,

84
00:03:53,766 --> 00:03:55,333
{\an1}reveals hidden powers,

85
00:03:55,366 --> 00:03:58,466
{\an1}and harnesses secrets of life,

86
00:03:58,500 --> 00:04:00,966
from hydrogen

87
00:04:01,000 --> 00:04:04,200
{\an1}to uranium and beyond.

88
00:04:04,233 --> 00:04:06,500
{\an1}I'm starting with one
of humanity's

89
00:04:06,533 --> 00:04:08,400
{\an1}first elemental loves:

90
00:04:08,433 --> 00:04:09,666
gold.

91
00:04:09,700 --> 00:04:11,433
Symbol: Au.

92
00:04:11,466 --> 00:04:13,866
{\an1}Like all elements,
gold is an atom

93
00:04:13,900 --> 00:04:16,833
{\an1}that gets its identity
from tiny particles--

94
00:04:16,866 --> 00:04:19,966
{\an1}positively charged protons
in the nucleus

95
00:04:20,000 --> 00:04:24,900
{\an1}balanced by negatively charged
electrons all around,

96
00:04:24,933 --> 00:04:28,466
plus neutrons,
which have no charge at all.

97
00:04:28,500 --> 00:04:31,200
{\an1}Gold has been sought
since ancient times,

98
00:04:31,233 --> 00:04:35,366
{\an1}yet all the gold ever mined
would fit into a single cube

99
00:04:35,400 --> 00:04:38,066
{\an1}about 60 feet on a side.

100
00:04:38,100 --> 00:04:40,533
{\an1}Gold is unique among the metals.

101
00:04:40,566 --> 00:04:43,166
{\an1}It doesn't rust or tarnish.

102
00:04:43,200 --> 00:04:48,366
{\an1}It's virtually indestructible,
yet also soft and malleable.

103
00:04:48,400 --> 00:04:51,100
{\an1}It was a sacred material
to ancient people.

104
00:04:52,966 --> 00:04:56,700
{\an1}And it's never lost its luster.

105
00:04:56,733 --> 00:05:01,866
{\an1}The problem is, it's exceedingly
rare stuff in the earth's crust,

106
00:05:01,900 --> 00:05:05,300
{\an1}and it's getting harder to find
all the time.

107
00:05:05,333 --> 00:05:07,800
{\an1}Here at the Cortez Mine
in Nevada,

108
00:05:07,833 --> 00:05:10,333
{\an1}high-tech prospectors
are moving mountains,

109
00:05:10,366 --> 00:05:15,033
{\an1}closing in from above
and below.

110
00:05:17,666 --> 00:05:21,366
{\an1}This rock face is about a
quarter mile below the surface.

111
00:05:21,400 --> 00:05:25,666
{\an1}And according to John Taule,
it's loaded with gold.

112
00:05:25,700 --> 00:05:27,033
Somewhere...

113
00:05:27,066 --> 00:05:28,266
And what would it
look like?

114
00:05:28,300 --> 00:05:30,966
{\an1}Like yellow, metallic streaks
in the walls?

115
00:05:33,700 --> 00:05:35,500
{\an7}No, it's really hard
to tell from the rock,

116
00:05:35,533 --> 00:05:38,233
{\an7}because it's microscopic,
you can't see the gold.

117
00:05:38,266 --> 00:05:39,866
The gold is microscopic?

118
00:05:39,900 --> 00:05:41,500
{\an1}Yes, you can't see it
with the naked eye.

119
00:05:41,533 --> 00:05:44,033
{\an1}So we're way past the days

120
00:05:44,066 --> 00:05:46,866
{\an1}of finding big gold nuggets
sticking out of the wall, going,

121
00:05:46,900 --> 00:05:48,333
{\an1}"Hey Bob, I got one here!"

122
00:05:48,366 --> 00:05:49,666
{\an1}We're past that now, huh?

123
00:05:49,700 --> 00:05:50,700
{\an1}That's correct.

124
00:05:53,066 --> 00:05:56,366
POGUE:
Which raises a question:

125
00:05:56,400 --> 00:05:59,533
{\an1}if the gold is invisible
to the naked eye,

126
00:05:59,566 --> 00:06:04,366
{\an1}how do they even know if they're
digging in the right place?

127
00:06:04,400 --> 00:06:08,900
{\an1}That's where Gayle Fitzwater
and the assay team come in.

128
00:06:08,933 --> 00:06:12,233
{\an1}Every day, she receives hundreds
of samples of earth

129
00:06:12,266 --> 00:06:15,100
{\an1}taken from the mine.

130
00:06:15,133 --> 00:06:17,300
{\an1}Her job is to figure out

131
00:06:17,333 --> 00:06:20,833
how much gold is
in them there rocks.

132
00:06:20,866 --> 00:06:23,833
{\an1}To get at the color,
it has to be crushed...

133
00:06:23,866 --> 00:06:25,400
Do you want ice cream
with this?

134
00:06:25,433 --> 00:06:28,500
{\an1}... shuffled like
a deck of cards...

135
00:06:28,533 --> 00:06:30,866
{\an1}I think I've seen one of these
machines at Starbucks.

136
00:06:30,900 --> 00:06:34,600
{\an1}... then pulverized to the
consistency of baby powder.

137
00:06:34,633 --> 00:06:36,600
{\an1}I don't see any more rocks
in here.

138
00:06:36,633 --> 00:06:38,866
{\an1}But the bad news is, I don't see
any gold in here, either.

139
00:06:38,900 --> 00:06:41,666
{\an1}The good news is that
we haven't finished.

140
00:06:41,700 --> 00:06:44,766
{\an1}There may be still gold
hiding in the mix.

141
00:06:44,800 --> 00:06:49,566
{\an1}The sample, mixed with
a lead oxide powder,

142
00:06:49,600 --> 00:06:53,633
{\an1}goes into a furnace
heated to 2,000 degrees.

143
00:06:53,666 --> 00:06:58,100
{\an1}It's a 500-year-old process
called a fire assay.

144
00:06:58,133 --> 00:07:01,800
{\an1}Using extreme heat, gold atoms
are gradually coaxed away

145
00:07:01,833 --> 00:07:04,266
{\an1}from the powdered rock.

146
00:07:07,300 --> 00:07:08,766
So after all
that pulverizing

147
00:07:08,800 --> 00:07:10,733
{\an1}and crushing and weighing
and firing,

148
00:07:10,766 --> 00:07:14,266
{\an1}what we're left with is this,
these little teacups?

149
00:07:14,300 --> 00:07:16,300
{\an1}What you're going to be able
to see in here

150
00:07:16,333 --> 00:07:18,966
is a gold bead
that was recovered

151
00:07:19,000 --> 00:07:21,966
from that sample
that you crushed.

152
00:07:22,000 --> 00:07:23,433
Um, no.

153
00:07:23,466 --> 00:07:24,633
{\an1}Okay, come on.

154
00:07:24,666 --> 00:07:26,300
{\an1}This is like the emperor's
new teacup.

155
00:07:26,333 --> 00:07:31,300
{\an1}There's nothing in here except
that little tiny piece of dust.

156
00:07:31,333 --> 00:07:32,966
{\an1}That's a piece
of gold.

157
00:07:33,000 --> 00:07:35,733
{\an1}That actually weighs
about a half a milligram.

158
00:07:35,766 --> 00:07:39,266
{\an1}So all that work gave you only
a half a milligram of gold?

159
00:07:39,300 --> 00:07:40,466
{\an1}It equals out

160
00:07:40,500 --> 00:07:41,966
{\an7}to about one ounce per ton.

161
00:07:42,000 --> 00:07:44,666
{\an8}An ounce of gold
for every ton of rock?

162
00:07:44,700 --> 00:07:45,700
{\an7}That's right, and...

163
00:07:45,733 --> 00:07:46,900
That's a terrible
business!

164
00:07:46,933 --> 00:07:48,533
You'll never make
any money.

165
00:07:50,633 --> 00:07:53,000
FITZWATER:
When you went in the mine

166
00:07:53,033 --> 00:07:55,666
{\an1}and you were able to see
the trucks that we had,

167
00:07:55,700 --> 00:07:58,633
{\an1}those are 400-ton haul packs.

168
00:07:58,666 --> 00:08:00,866
{\an1}If you had 400 tons of material
at one ounce per ton...

169
00:08:00,900 --> 00:08:07,066
{\an1}400 tons and one ounce of gold
for each ton.

170
00:08:07,100 --> 00:08:11,900
{\an1}At that rate, that's 25 pounds
of gold for every truck.

171
00:08:11,933 --> 00:08:14,633
{\an1}And at $1,800 an ounce...

172
00:08:14,666 --> 00:08:16,833
$1,800 times...

173
00:08:16,866 --> 00:08:19,900
{\an1}$720,000 a truck!

174
00:08:21,400 --> 00:08:23,200
This is a fantastic
business!

175
00:08:23,233 --> 00:08:24,633
How do I get in on this?

176
00:08:24,666 --> 00:08:27,766
POGUE:
Turns out that an ounce per ton

177
00:08:27,800 --> 00:08:31,033
{\an1}is pretty much optimal
for the underground mine.

178
00:08:31,066 --> 00:08:35,933
{\an1}The surface mine produces less,
about half an ounce per ton.

179
00:08:37,633 --> 00:08:38,833
{\an1}To see what it takes

180
00:08:38,866 --> 00:08:41,433
{\an1}to get something bigger
than that tiny bead,

181
00:08:41,466 --> 00:08:44,933
{\an1}I visit the processing plant
where the ore ends up.

182
00:08:44,966 --> 00:08:47,133
Just another day in
the gold refinery.

183
00:08:47,166 --> 00:08:51,400
{\an1}Here too, extraction begins
with crushing

184
00:08:51,433 --> 00:08:54,900
{\an1}in these huge tumblers.

185
00:08:54,933 --> 00:08:56,833
{\an1}And that sets the stage
for the trickiest step:

186
00:08:56,866 --> 00:09:01,866
{\an1}coaxing the microscopic gold out
of the rocky ore.

187
00:09:01,900 --> 00:09:06,033
{\an1}About three quarters
of the elements are metals.

188
00:09:06,066 --> 00:09:09,766
{\an1}And gold is one of the most
standoffish.

189
00:09:09,800 --> 00:09:13,366
{\an1}How an atom reacts chemically
depends on how willing it is

190
00:09:13,400 --> 00:09:15,633
{\an1}to share electrons with others.

191
00:09:15,666 --> 00:09:18,833
{\an1}And gold is not very social.

192
00:09:18,866 --> 00:09:20,500
{\an1}Like Greta Garbo,

193
00:09:20,533 --> 00:09:23,333
{\an1}(uses German accent):
it wants to be alone.

194
00:09:23,366 --> 00:09:26,600
{\an1}So do other so-called
noble metals--

195
00:09:26,633 --> 00:09:32,200
{\an1}silver, platinum, palladium,
osmium and iridium--

196
00:09:32,233 --> 00:09:34,566
{\an1}all located in the same
quiet neighborhood

197
00:09:34,600 --> 00:09:36,333
{\an1}of the periodic table.

198
00:09:36,366 --> 00:09:39,766
{\an1}Using cyanide to react
with the gold

199
00:09:39,800 --> 00:09:41,666
{\an1}allows them to gradually reduce

200
00:09:41,700 --> 00:09:45,933
{\an1}40,000 gallon tanks
of pulverized sludge...

201
00:09:45,966 --> 00:09:47,433
to this.

202
00:09:47,466 --> 00:09:50,233
{\an1}Three trays full of... mud?

203
00:09:50,266 --> 00:09:52,533
{\an1}But there's not gold
in here, is there?

204
00:09:52,566 --> 00:09:54,600
{\an1}There's a little bit of carbon
that's mixed in with this

205
00:09:54,633 --> 00:09:56,166
that's changed
the color on it.

206
00:09:56,200 --> 00:09:58,000
{\an7}But I assure you that when we
melt it and pour it down, Dave,

207
00:09:58,033 --> 00:09:59,300
{\an7}we're going to have gold.

208
00:09:59,333 --> 00:10:01,866
{\an7}All right, and how much gold--
like, how many gold bars--

209
00:10:01,900 --> 00:10:03,666
{\an7}will this array make?

210
00:10:03,700 --> 00:10:06,200
This should produce
about a bar and a half.

211
00:10:06,233 --> 00:10:08,533
{\an1}All right,
and all derived

212
00:10:08,566 --> 00:10:12,533
{\an1}from one 40,000-gallon batch
of solution?

213
00:10:12,566 --> 00:10:13,633
Right.

214
00:10:13,666 --> 00:10:15,533
{\an1}So, 40,000 gallons got
distilled down to this,

215
00:10:15,566 --> 00:10:17,633
{\an1}and that will get distilled down
to a bar and a half?

216
00:10:17,666 --> 00:10:19,233
Right, exactly.
Wow.

217
00:10:19,266 --> 00:10:24,066
POGUE:
The golden mud goes into
a 2,000-degree induction furnace

218
00:10:24,100 --> 00:10:27,433
{\an1}along with a white powder
called flux,

219
00:10:27,466 --> 00:10:29,566
{\an1}chemicals that prevent
the molten gold

220
00:10:29,600 --> 00:10:32,600
{\an1}from reacting with
or sticking to anything.

221
00:10:40,600 --> 00:10:43,000
{\an1}This is the first time
an outsider

222
00:10:43,033 --> 00:10:45,000
{\an1}has been allowed to pour gold.

223
00:10:48,700 --> 00:10:51,500
{\an1}Just call me King Midas.

224
00:10:51,533 --> 00:10:53,966
{\an7}I'm not sure they entirely know
what they're doing,

225
00:10:54,000 --> 00:10:57,333
{\an7}but they are going
to let me pour the gold

226
00:10:57,366 --> 00:10:59,300
{\an7}into a gold bar mold.

227
00:10:59,333 --> 00:11:03,000
{\an1}If it goes over 70 pounds,
it's a reject.

228
00:11:03,033 --> 00:11:04,566
{\an1}They'll have to throw it away

229
00:11:04,600 --> 00:11:06,766
{\an1}or just let me take it home
in my luggage.

230
00:11:06,800 --> 00:11:12,400
So, you know, I'll...
I'll do my best not to spill.

231
00:11:12,433 --> 00:11:15,400
{\an1}There's a lot of money
at stake here.

232
00:11:15,433 --> 00:11:17,533
Here it comes.

233
00:11:17,566 --> 00:11:19,500
Hot gold.

234
00:11:19,533 --> 00:11:21,200
{\an1}Get your hot gold here.

235
00:11:27,000 --> 00:11:28,466
Right there.

236
00:11:28,500 --> 00:11:31,633
It's a gold bar,
ladies and gentlemen.

237
00:11:31,666 --> 00:11:32,766
{\an1}It's been my pleasure.

238
00:11:32,800 --> 00:11:33,800
{\an1}See you next week!

239
00:11:36,200 --> 00:11:40,200
{\an8}Perfect job.

240
00:11:40,233 --> 00:11:43,633
Final steps:
cool and clean the bars.

241
00:11:46,033 --> 00:11:49,033
{\an1}Stamp them with their unique
serial numbers

242
00:11:49,066 --> 00:11:51,833
{\an1}and their weights.

243
00:11:54,666 --> 00:11:56,300
{\an1}So this is it,
the proverbial gold bars.

244
00:11:56,333 --> 00:11:57,466
{\an1}And you know what?

245
00:11:57,500 --> 00:11:58,800
{\an1}They're still warm.

246
00:11:58,833 --> 00:12:00,133
They're still warm,
hot off the press.

247
00:12:00,166 --> 00:12:01,300
{\an1}Can I pick one of these up?

248
00:12:01,333 --> 00:12:03,200
{\an1}It's not may I,
it's can I.

249
00:12:03,233 --> 00:12:05,133
Oh man!

250
00:12:05,166 --> 00:12:06,500
This thing...

251
00:12:06,533 --> 00:12:08,333
{\an1}So this is, what, 70 pounds?

252
00:12:08,366 --> 00:12:09,166
It's about 60 pounds.

253
00:12:09,200 --> 00:12:10,133
{\an1}60 pounds?

254
00:12:10,166 --> 00:12:10,833
{\an3}Yes.

255
00:12:10,866 --> 00:12:12,000
{\an1}Oh, it's nothing.

256
00:12:12,033 --> 00:12:13,833
{\an1}And about how much
value here?

257
00:12:13,866 --> 00:12:16,166
{\an1}There is about a million-
and-a-half dollars there, Dave.

258
00:12:16,200 --> 00:12:17,800
{\an1}Oh, man.

259
00:12:17,833 --> 00:12:20,233
{\an1}Mike, what's that gorilla
doing there?

260
00:12:20,266 --> 00:12:21,433
(laughs)

261
00:12:21,466 --> 00:12:24,366
POGUE:
They're deceptively heavy.

262
00:12:24,400 --> 00:12:27,366
{\an1}Only a few natural elements
have greater density than gold:

263
00:12:27,400 --> 00:12:31,766
{\an1}rhenium, platinum,
iridium, and osmium.

264
00:12:31,800 --> 00:12:34,300
Mike tells me
that each bar represents

265
00:12:34,333 --> 00:12:36,600
{\an1}about a million pounds of rock

266
00:12:36,633 --> 00:12:39,733
{\an1}that had to be moved
and processed.

267
00:12:39,766 --> 00:12:43,166
{\an1}Eight bars, 12 million dollars

268
00:12:43,200 --> 00:12:45,666
{\an1}sitting on this unassuming
little table.

269
00:12:45,700 --> 00:12:49,133
{\an1}What a transformation.

270
00:12:49,166 --> 00:12:51,866
{\an1}Of all the elements
that touch our lives,

271
00:12:51,900 --> 00:12:53,766
{\an1}nothing drives humankind

272
00:12:53,800 --> 00:12:57,300
{\an1}to acts of love or destruction
like gold.

273
00:12:57,333 --> 00:13:00,933
{\an1}It is perhaps the most emotional
of the elements.

274
00:13:00,966 --> 00:13:04,366
{\an1}But two rows above gold
is another metal of antiquity

275
00:13:04,400 --> 00:13:08,933
{\an1}that looms large in our lives:
copper.

276
00:13:08,966 --> 00:13:11,300
Symbol: Cu.

277
00:13:11,333 --> 00:13:13,100
{\an1}Atomic number: 29.

278
00:13:13,133 --> 00:13:17,133
{\an1}29 protons, 29 electrons.

279
00:13:17,166 --> 00:13:20,566
{\an1}The ancients first learned
how to heat rocks

280
00:13:20,600 --> 00:13:25,966
{\an1}to extract copper
at least 7,000 years ago.

281
00:13:30,533 --> 00:13:33,033
{\an1}And today, it's one of the most
widely bought and sold metals

282
00:13:33,066 --> 00:13:35,100
in the world.

283
00:13:38,033 --> 00:13:40,000
{\an1}The New York Mercantile Exchange

284
00:13:40,033 --> 00:13:42,600
is a vital hub
in the global metals market.

285
00:13:46,266 --> 00:13:48,933
{\an1}Which is pretty good news
for me.

286
00:13:52,633 --> 00:13:53,833
{\an1}At least, I thought so...

287
00:13:53,866 --> 00:13:57,233
{\an1}Sorry sir, you can't
come in with this.

288
00:13:57,266 --> 00:13:58,866
I thought this is
a copper exchange.

289
00:13:58,900 --> 00:14:00,333
I'm here to exchange
some copper.

290
00:14:00,366 --> 00:14:01,833
{\an1}I'm sorry, that's not allowed
on the floor,

291
00:14:01,866 --> 00:14:02,833
{\an1}you can't come in with this.

292
00:14:02,866 --> 00:14:04,066
Seriously?

293
00:14:07,900 --> 00:14:11,233
{\an1}The only business that they're
willing to do here

294
00:14:11,266 --> 00:14:13,900
{\an1}is to buy or sell
copper futures.

295
00:14:13,933 --> 00:14:16,333
{\an1}Like who would fall for that?

296
00:14:16,366 --> 00:14:17,833
{\an1}ANTHONY GRISANTI:
Oh, this is an old,
old business.

297
00:14:17,866 --> 00:14:21,100
{\an7}This goes back to the 1800s,
the late 1800s,

298
00:14:21,133 --> 00:14:22,800
{\an7}where farmers were looking,
actually,

299
00:14:22,833 --> 00:14:25,300
{\an8}for money to plant
their next year's crops.

300
00:14:25,333 --> 00:14:27,866
{\an1}So what the farmers would do is
they would say, for example,

301
00:14:27,900 --> 00:14:30,400
{\an1}"David, you loan me
some money," okay,

302
00:14:30,433 --> 00:14:32,666
{\an1}"and then in the future,
I will sell you that crop

303
00:14:32,700 --> 00:14:34,800
that I planted
for this amount of dollars."

304
00:14:34,833 --> 00:14:36,566
{\an1}Eighteen and a half...

305
00:14:36,600 --> 00:14:38,000
{\an1}So what I'm doing is,

306
00:14:38,033 --> 00:14:41,600
{\an1}I'm selling you the right
to buy or sell my future crops.

307
00:14:41,633 --> 00:14:44,600
POGUE:
So this crazy hi-tech thing

308
00:14:44,633 --> 00:14:46,066
{\an1}began as a glorified
farmers market.

309
00:14:48,100 --> 00:14:50,700
{\an7}In fact, this exchange
in New York

310
00:14:50,733 --> 00:14:54,800
{\an7}started as a butter and cheese
exchange on Harrison Street.

311
00:14:54,833 --> 00:14:57,833
{\an1}Is it safe to say there's
no cheese pit here somewhere?

312
00:14:57,866 --> 00:14:59,966
Uh, gruyere, gruyere,
cheddar, cheddar!

313
00:15:00,000 --> 00:15:01,766
{\an1}David, you have to go
to Chicago for that.

314
00:15:01,800 --> 00:15:03,066
They still do that?

315
00:15:03,100 --> 00:15:05,033
{\an1}Yeah, they still trade
agricultural products.

316
00:15:05,066 --> 00:15:08,266
(shouting)

317
00:15:08,300 --> 00:15:10,766
{\an1}I would think that there would
be trading markets like this

318
00:15:10,800 --> 00:15:12,866
{\an1}for gold, and silver,
and platinum,

319
00:15:12,900 --> 00:15:14,433
{\an1}and things that
are valuable.

320
00:15:14,466 --> 00:15:15,833
{\an1}But copper?

321
00:15:15,866 --> 00:15:17,533
{\an1}Come on, it's like pennies,
it's like...

322
00:15:17,566 --> 00:15:19,433
Copper is king, okay?

323
00:15:19,466 --> 00:15:20,833
{\an1}Copper is used for everything.

324
00:15:20,866 --> 00:15:22,733
{\an1}It's a really vital metal.

325
00:15:22,766 --> 00:15:26,133
{\an1}We use it for infrastructure,
we use it for electronic goods.

326
00:15:26,166 --> 00:15:27,766
{\an1}I can hardly think of anything

327
00:15:27,800 --> 00:15:31,600
{\an1}that doesn't have either a tiny
bit of copper or lots of copper.

328
00:15:31,633 --> 00:15:32,600
I love copper.

329
00:15:32,633 --> 00:15:34,166
I do, I do.
I'm getting that.

330
00:15:34,200 --> 00:15:38,566
POGUE:
Harriet tells me that the copper
market is huge.

331
00:15:38,600 --> 00:15:41,466
{\an1}Traders in New York,
London, and Shanghai

332
00:15:41,500 --> 00:15:45,433
{\an1}buy and sell more than
20 million tons a year.

333
00:15:45,466 --> 00:15:50,500
{\an1}Copper is in wire,
electronics and computer chips,

334
00:15:50,533 --> 00:15:53,766
{\an1}plumbing and other building
materials.

335
00:15:53,800 --> 00:15:56,966
{\an1}It's so important that the rise
and fall of copper prices

336
00:15:57,000 --> 00:16:01,133
{\an1}provide a snapshot of the health
of the entire world economy.

337
00:16:01,166 --> 00:16:04,466
{\an1}When times are bad,
copper prices tumble.

338
00:16:04,500 --> 00:16:07,400
{\an1}And when times are good,
they soar.

339
00:16:07,433 --> 00:16:09,833
{\an1}Some say it should be called
Dr. Copper,

340
00:16:09,866 --> 00:16:13,900
{\an1}because it's the only metal
with a Ph.D. in economics.

341
00:16:13,933 --> 00:16:16,466
{\an1}Copper has been prized
for millennia

342
00:16:16,500 --> 00:16:18,733
{\an1}for its unique properties.

343
00:16:18,766 --> 00:16:22,300
{\an1}It conducts electricity better
than any metal except silver.

344
00:16:22,333 --> 00:16:26,000
{\an1}It's malleable and has
a moderate melting temperature.

345
00:16:26,033 --> 00:16:29,366
{\an1}It even scares away bacteria.

346
00:16:29,400 --> 00:16:32,933
(shouting)

347
00:16:32,966 --> 00:16:36,766
{\an1}These guys can trade
their copper futures.

348
00:16:36,800 --> 00:16:40,233
{\an1}I've got to unload
my copper today.

349
00:16:40,266 --> 00:16:41,833
Commodities!

350
00:16:41,866 --> 00:16:43,933
{\an1}Get your commodities!

351
00:16:43,966 --> 00:16:46,266
{\an1}Got copper at 80 cents a pound.

352
00:16:46,300 --> 00:16:47,800
Anybody?

353
00:16:47,833 --> 00:16:49,200
Anybody?

354
00:16:57,033 --> 00:16:59,433
Copper alone is
impressive stuff.

355
00:16:59,466 --> 00:17:01,166
{\an1}But when ancient metallurgists

356
00:17:01,200 --> 00:17:03,466
combined it
with another element,

357
00:17:03,500 --> 00:17:05,733
they invented
a much tougher material

358
00:17:05,766 --> 00:17:07,866
{\an1}that went on to conquer
the world.

359
00:17:07,900 --> 00:17:10,266
{\an1}That secret ingredient?

360
00:17:10,300 --> 00:17:11,766
Tin.

361
00:17:11,800 --> 00:17:13,466
Symbol: Sn.

362
00:17:13,500 --> 00:17:15,633
{\an1}Atomic Number: 50.

363
00:17:15,666 --> 00:17:18,433
{\an1}50 protons and 50 electrons.

364
00:17:18,466 --> 00:17:23,266
{\an1}Tin added in small amounts
to copper makes bronze,

365
00:17:23,300 --> 00:17:25,933
{\an1}the first man-made metal alloy.

366
00:17:25,966 --> 00:17:28,900
{\an1}Bronze helped to spur
global trade.

367
00:17:28,933 --> 00:17:31,533
{\an1}And once forged into tools
and weapons,

368
00:17:31,566 --> 00:17:35,600
{\an1}it played a defining role
in the empires of antiquity.

369
00:17:35,633 --> 00:17:39,733
{\an1}Bronze named an entire age
of human civilization.

370
00:17:39,766 --> 00:17:41,500
(bell ringing)

371
00:17:41,533 --> 00:17:43,800
And even today,
it's still hanging around.

372
00:17:49,800 --> 00:17:52,666
{\an1}This is the Verdin Company,

373
00:17:52,700 --> 00:17:58,100
{\an1}a 170-year-old family-run
business in Cincinnati, Ohio.

374
00:17:58,133 --> 00:18:03,633
{\an1}I'm here because they're about
to cast several bells.

375
00:18:03,666 --> 00:18:06,933
{\an1}Even with all the other
modern materials available,

376
00:18:06,966 --> 00:18:09,433
{\an1}they still choose bronze.

377
00:18:09,466 --> 00:18:11,800
{\an1}I want to know why.

378
00:18:11,833 --> 00:18:16,433
{\an1}Hasn't something better come
along after all these years?

379
00:18:16,466 --> 00:18:20,700
{\an1}Ralph Jung offers to make
the case for bronze.

380
00:18:20,733 --> 00:18:23,100
{\an1}This is our pattern
that we're gonna use

381
00:18:23,133 --> 00:18:25,300
{\an1}to actually make the form
in the sand.

382
00:18:25,333 --> 00:18:26,666
So this looks like
a finished bell.

383
00:18:26,700 --> 00:18:27,966
This isn't a bell?
Yes, it does.

384
00:18:28,000 --> 00:18:29,466
{\an1}This is just
the pattern, yes.

385
00:18:29,500 --> 00:18:32,333
{\an1}It's made out of aluminum,
so it's real easy to handle.

386
00:18:32,366 --> 00:18:33,400
Well, what's wrong
with that?

387
00:18:33,433 --> 00:18:34,466
Aluminum's good.

388
00:18:34,500 --> 00:18:35,733
Aluminum doesn't rust,
Aluminum's light...

389
00:18:35,766 --> 00:18:36,800
{\an1}You're right,
it doesn't.

390
00:18:36,833 --> 00:18:37,833
{\an1}Why don't you make the bells
out of this?

391
00:18:37,866 --> 00:18:39,466
{\an1}Well, the sound.

392
00:18:42,333 --> 00:18:43,866
{\an1}It doesn't have
that lasting ring.

393
00:18:43,900 --> 00:18:45,500
{\an1}And it just...

394
00:18:45,533 --> 00:18:46,566
You don't like
how that sounds?

395
00:18:46,600 --> 00:18:47,733
{\an1}Not really.

396
00:18:47,766 --> 00:18:49,600
{\an1}It sounds kinda
tinny, also.

397
00:18:49,633 --> 00:18:50,766
Thanks a lot, buddy.

398
00:18:50,800 --> 00:18:51,833
{\an1}Well, you know...

399
00:18:51,866 --> 00:18:53,833
I practiced.

400
00:18:53,866 --> 00:18:56,133
{\an1}We'll show you what
a real bell sounds like.

401
00:18:56,166 --> 00:18:57,966
POGUE:
The quality of the sound

402
00:18:58,000 --> 00:19:01,100
{\an1}depends on the atomic structure
of the material.

403
00:19:01,133 --> 00:19:03,466
In pure metals,
the atoms are arranged

404
00:19:03,500 --> 00:19:05,866
{\an1}in orderly rows and columns.

405
00:19:05,900 --> 00:19:08,500
{\an1}Each atom gives up
some of its electrons

406
00:19:08,533 --> 00:19:10,500
{\an1}to create a kind of sea

407
00:19:10,533 --> 00:19:13,500
{\an1}of these randomly-moving
charged particles.

408
00:19:13,533 --> 00:19:15,700
{\an1}It's these free-flowing
electrons

409
00:19:15,733 --> 00:19:17,900
{\an1}that make metals conductive.

410
00:19:17,933 --> 00:19:19,600
{\an1}When placed in a circuit,

411
00:19:19,633 --> 00:19:21,666
{\an1}the negatively charged
particles line up

412
00:19:21,700 --> 00:19:24,433
{\an1}and flow as an electric current.

413
00:19:25,200 --> 00:19:27,166
{\an1}The sea of electrons

414
00:19:27,200 --> 00:19:30,366
{\an1}also creates flexible
metallic bonds among the atoms.

415
00:19:30,400 --> 00:19:33,833
{\an1}In copper, they can slide past
each other easily,

416
00:19:33,866 --> 00:19:37,300
{\an1}which makes it relatively soft
and easy-to-dent.

417
00:19:37,333 --> 00:19:40,066
{\an1}Not right for a bell.

418
00:19:40,100 --> 00:19:43,466
{\an1}That's why Verdin
uses stiffer stuff.

419
00:19:43,500 --> 00:19:45,066
JUNG:
So we'll put this down
into here...

420
00:19:45,100 --> 00:19:49,933
POGUE:
Ralph places the form into
a circular steel sleeve,

421
00:19:49,966 --> 00:19:54,033
{\an1}then fills the space around it
with a mixture of sand and epoxy

422
00:19:54,066 --> 00:19:58,766
{\an1}to withstand the searing heat
of the hot metal.

423
00:19:58,800 --> 00:20:00,700
{\an1}When this company started,

424
00:20:00,733 --> 00:20:03,000
{\an1}they used a mixture
of horsehair, manure,

425
00:20:03,033 --> 00:20:04,966
{\an1}and just about anything else

426
00:20:05,000 --> 00:20:08,366
{\an1}that would hold a shape
without burning.

427
00:20:08,400 --> 00:20:12,233
{\an1}But the goal was the same:
to create a hollow shape

428
00:20:12,266 --> 00:20:15,833
{\an1}that follows the inner and outer
perimeter of the bell.

429
00:20:15,866 --> 00:20:20,766
{\an1}Once he removes the aluminum
and joins the two halves,

430
00:20:20,800 --> 00:20:24,433
{\an1}a bell-shaped space
remains on the inside,

431
00:20:24,466 --> 00:20:28,333
ready to accept
the molten bronze.

432
00:20:28,366 --> 00:20:29,666
{\an1}And what we have
here, David,

433
00:20:29,700 --> 00:20:32,866
{\an1}is the bronze ingots that we use
to put in the furnace.

434
00:20:32,900 --> 00:20:34,600
{\an1}As you can see,
they're...

435
00:20:34,633 --> 00:20:36,400
{\an1}they've got a little bit
of heft to them.

436
00:20:36,433 --> 00:20:37,600
Yeah, it's like...

437
00:20:37,633 --> 00:20:39,100
{\an1}They average
about 20 pounds.

438
00:20:39,133 --> 00:20:40,566
{\an1}That's a...
that's a mixture, actually,

439
00:20:40,600 --> 00:20:43,166
{\an1}of 80% copper
and 20% tin.

440
00:20:43,200 --> 00:20:46,700
{\an1}And what we have here is
the tin in a raw form.

441
00:20:46,733 --> 00:20:48,400
{\an1}This is how it comes out
of the ground.

442
00:20:48,433 --> 00:20:50,100
{\an1}This is from Malaysia.
Okay.

443
00:20:50,133 --> 00:20:52,166
{\an1}And we have
a chunk of copper

444
00:20:52,200 --> 00:20:53,900
{\an1}the way it comes out
of the ground.

445
00:20:53,933 --> 00:20:55,600
{\an1}And that's from
South Africa.

446
00:20:55,633 --> 00:20:57,233
So that's the recipe
for bronze.

447
00:20:57,266 --> 00:20:58,766
{\an1}Exactly.

448
00:20:58,800 --> 00:21:00,700
So you've got copper
plus tin equals bronze.

449
00:21:00,733 --> 00:21:03,166
{\an1}Equals bronze, yeah.

450
00:21:03,200 --> 00:21:04,900
{\an1}Why couldn't you use one of
those metals by themselves?

451
00:21:04,933 --> 00:21:06,733
Why don't you make bells
out of just copper?

452
00:21:06,766 --> 00:21:08,366
{\an7}If it was all copper,

453
00:21:08,400 --> 00:21:10,066
{\an7}it would first of all
be too soft,

454
00:21:10,100 --> 00:21:13,466
{\an7}and we wouldn't get that sound
that we want from a bell.

455
00:21:13,500 --> 00:21:17,833
{\an1}Tin with copper
gives us that hardness.

456
00:21:17,866 --> 00:21:20,966
POGUE:
Adding tin to copper
during melting

457
00:21:21,000 --> 00:21:23,700
{\an1}changes the properties
of the metal.

458
00:21:23,733 --> 00:21:25,300
{\an1}The larger tin atoms

459
00:21:25,333 --> 00:21:27,400
{\an1}restrict the movement
of the copper atoms,

460
00:21:27,433 --> 00:21:32,366
{\an1}making the material harder.

461
00:21:32,400 --> 00:21:34,800
{\an1}A blow causes the atoms
to vibrate,

462
00:21:34,833 --> 00:21:38,066
{\an1}but the tin prevents them from
moving too far out of position.

463
00:21:38,100 --> 00:21:40,433
{\an1}Tin is good for a bell,

464
00:21:40,466 --> 00:21:42,766
{\an1}but only in the right
proportion.

465
00:21:42,800 --> 00:21:47,200
{\an1}This is what can happen if
the amount of tin isn't right.

466
00:21:47,233 --> 00:21:51,000
{\an1}No one is certain why
the Liberty Bell cracked,

467
00:21:51,033 --> 00:21:54,933
{\an1}but a chemical analysis
indicated there was too much tin

468
00:21:54,966 --> 00:21:58,800
{\an1}and perhaps other impurities
in the bronze.

469
00:21:58,833 --> 00:22:00,366
{\an1}The crack could have been caused

470
00:22:00,400 --> 00:22:03,500
{\an1}by the way the atoms
were arranged within the metal.

471
00:22:03,533 --> 00:22:07,000
{\an1}Too much tin, and the copper
atoms can't move at all.

472
00:22:07,033 --> 00:22:10,466
{\an1}One good whack, and...

473
00:22:13,100 --> 00:22:15,200
{\an1}When the bronze has reached
the proper temperature--

474
00:22:15,233 --> 00:22:21,966
{\an1}2,200 degrees Fahrenheit--
it's time to pour.

475
00:22:22,000 --> 00:22:23,966
{\an1}Is there any, uh, danger
involved in this process?

476
00:22:24,000 --> 00:22:28,666
{\an1}Well, if you consider getting
burned a danger, yes, there is.

477
00:22:32,333 --> 00:22:35,933
POGUE:
During the pour,
speed is of the essence.

478
00:22:35,966 --> 00:22:37,900
{\an1}If the metal is allowed to cool,

479
00:22:37,933 --> 00:22:42,733
{\an1}flaws could develop,
ruining the bell.

480
00:22:42,766 --> 00:22:44,966
{\an1}Even though the foundry
has the technology

481
00:22:45,000 --> 00:22:47,733
{\an1}to precisely control
the temperature,

482
00:22:47,766 --> 00:22:52,933
{\an1}and Ralph and his team have
decades of experience,

483
00:22:52,966 --> 00:22:54,500
{\an1}bronze remains unpredictable.

484
00:22:54,533 --> 00:23:01,500
{\an1}Out of every hundred bells
they pour, 20 or 30 will fail.

485
00:23:04,533 --> 00:23:05,733
{\an1}That was quite a process.

486
00:23:05,766 --> 00:23:07,366
{\an1}I appreciate your letting me
help out like that.

487
00:23:07,400 --> 00:23:10,566
JUNG:
I think we got three successful
bells out of this,

488
00:23:10,600 --> 00:23:12,500
{\an1}but anything can go wrong.

489
00:23:12,533 --> 00:23:16,300
{\an1}So you just don't know until
after you open up the molds

490
00:23:16,333 --> 00:23:19,466
{\an1}and see what you've got.

491
00:23:20,833 --> 00:23:23,666
{\an1}(roosters crowing)

492
00:23:23,700 --> 00:23:27,533
{\an1}The bells have to cool
for 24 hours,

493
00:23:27,566 --> 00:23:30,200
{\an1}so it's the next day
before we can find out

494
00:23:30,233 --> 00:23:34,300
{\an1}if they'll be making music
or ending up as scrap.

495
00:23:34,333 --> 00:23:36,433
So what am I gonna
see inside?

496
00:23:36,466 --> 00:23:40,133
A gleaming chrome,
silver magnificent church bell

497
00:23:40,166 --> 00:23:41,366
ready for hanging?

498
00:23:41,400 --> 00:23:43,166
{\an1}Actually no,
you're gonna see...

499
00:23:43,200 --> 00:23:47,033
{\an1}I like to refer to them
as a newborn baby.

500
00:23:47,066 --> 00:23:50,500
{\an1}They come out kind of ugly
and not so pretty,

501
00:23:50,533 --> 00:23:52,633
{\an1}but they clean up really well.

502
00:23:52,666 --> 00:23:58,500
{\an1}(humming "Also Sprach
Zarathustra" by Strauss)

503
00:23:58,533 --> 00:23:59,633
Wow, I can feel...

504
00:23:59,666 --> 00:24:01,700
I can feel waves of heat
coming off of this.

505
00:24:01,733 --> 00:24:03,133
{\an1}Yes, it's still quite warm.

506
00:24:03,166 --> 00:24:04,166
{\an1}Is it... is it touchable?

507
00:24:04,200 --> 00:24:05,300
Yes, it's touchable.

508
00:24:05,333 --> 00:24:06,833
Ow!

509
00:24:06,866 --> 00:24:08,700
{\an1}Speak for yourself, dude.

510
00:24:08,733 --> 00:24:12,133
POGUE:
And what happens to a carefully
crafted sand mold?

511
00:24:12,166 --> 00:24:17,200
It's history.

512
00:24:17,233 --> 00:24:20,333
{\an1}Is this an actual bell that you
can actually sell to somebody?

513
00:24:20,366 --> 00:24:22,000
Oh, yes, yes,
we're gonna...

514
00:24:22,033 --> 00:24:23,166
This will be
on the market very soon.

515
00:24:23,200 --> 00:24:27,200
{\an1}So I really do need
to not chip it.

516
00:24:27,233 --> 00:24:30,733
That would be good.

517
00:24:42,400 --> 00:24:44,766
{\an1}So what about all this
black sooty stuff?

518
00:24:44,800 --> 00:24:47,966
So that's going to have
to be cleaned off of there.

519
00:24:48,000 --> 00:24:49,966
{\an1}You got some kind of big
hydraulic... ?

520
00:24:50,000 --> 00:24:52,866
Actually no,
I got this.

521
00:25:08,933 --> 00:25:11,066
Well, that was
a big waste of time.

522
00:25:11,100 --> 00:25:13,466
You missed a big spot
over here.

523
00:25:13,500 --> 00:25:16,533
I guess that's okay
for a rookie.

524
00:25:16,566 --> 00:25:18,800
{\an1}Well, thank you
so much, Ralph.

525
00:25:18,833 --> 00:25:21,166
POGUE:
And now for the moment
of truth.

526
00:25:21,200 --> 00:25:24,666
Will this bell
be good enough to sing?

527
00:25:24,700 --> 00:25:25,833
What time is it?

528
00:25:25,866 --> 00:25:27,166
{\an1}Time to celebrate

529
00:25:27,200 --> 00:25:30,233
{\an1}the millennia-old tradition
of bronze.

530
00:25:30,266 --> 00:25:32,433
{\an1}(bell rings clearly)

531
00:25:32,466 --> 00:25:35,133
{\an1}Our bell resonates
with a beautiful tone,

532
00:25:35,166 --> 00:25:38,033
{\an1}and it takes many seconds
for the note to die out

533
00:25:38,066 --> 00:25:42,600
{\an1}thanks to the interplay
between copper and tin.

534
00:25:42,633 --> 00:25:44,566
{\an1}Even the best bell makers

535
00:25:44,600 --> 00:25:48,133
{\an1}can't know whether their bronze
will be too stiff, or too soft,

536
00:25:48,166 --> 00:25:50,700
{\an1}until they pour a bell
and strike it.

537
00:25:50,733 --> 00:25:52,133
{\an1}I wonder, though,

538
00:25:52,166 --> 00:25:55,133
{\an1}if there's a more scientific way
to evaluate the metal.

539
00:25:57,500 --> 00:25:59,966
{\an1}To find out, I'm taking
a piece of it

540
00:26:00,000 --> 00:26:02,833
to David Muller
at Cornell University.

541
00:26:02,866 --> 00:26:04,800
{\an1}He's offered to show me

542
00:26:04,833 --> 00:26:10,366
{\an1}how the atoms in our bronze
stack up... literally.

543
00:26:10,400 --> 00:26:12,366
{\an1}I brought you a couple
of hunks of bronze,

544
00:26:12,400 --> 00:26:14,166
{\an1}one of which was knocked off
of a bell when it was done

545
00:26:14,200 --> 00:26:16,466
{\an1}and one of which
is unpoured.

546
00:26:16,500 --> 00:26:18,600
{\an1}And I wouldn't mind
taking a look at these

547
00:26:18,633 --> 00:26:19,833
{\an1}under your magic
microscope.

548
00:26:19,866 --> 00:26:21,400
Okay.

549
00:26:21,433 --> 00:26:23,200
Now, this is actually
a lot of material.

550
00:26:23,233 --> 00:26:25,233
I need an area about
the size of a farm,

551
00:26:25,266 --> 00:26:27,366
{\an1}and you've given me the whole
of the United States.

552
00:26:27,400 --> 00:26:28,900
{\an1}So we're gonna cut it down
a little bit.

553
00:26:33,100 --> 00:26:34,100
MULLER:
Now watch out, it's hot.

554
00:26:34,133 --> 00:26:36,166
It's what? Ow!

555
00:26:36,200 --> 00:26:38,433
POGUE:
First, a polishing wheel
gives the bronze

556
00:26:38,466 --> 00:26:39,633
{\an1}a mirror-like finish.

557
00:26:39,666 --> 00:26:42,000
{\an1}Then the sample is inserted

558
00:26:42,033 --> 00:26:44,666
{\an1}into a powerful electron
microscope.

559
00:26:44,700 --> 00:26:47,900
{\an1}David tells me that when
we reach full magnification,

560
00:26:47,933 --> 00:26:52,300
{\an1}we will have images of
the actual atoms in the bronze,

561
00:26:52,333 --> 00:26:54,800
{\an1}something few people
have ever seen.

562
00:26:54,833 --> 00:26:57,500
{\an1}Frankly, it seems
a little farfetched.

563
00:26:57,533 --> 00:26:58,900
{\an1}So what's in there right now?

564
00:26:58,933 --> 00:27:00,333
{\an1}What are we looking at?

565
00:27:00,366 --> 00:27:02,566
{\an1}So we have a piece of the bronze
that we cut earlier,

566
00:27:02,600 --> 00:27:04,033
{\an1}very similar to this one.

567
00:27:04,066 --> 00:27:05,333
{\an1}Now, I have to say,

568
00:27:05,366 --> 00:27:07,233
{\an1}this microscope is not
especially impressive.

569
00:27:07,266 --> 00:27:10,100
{\an1}I mean, I'm seeing
the entire circle,

570
00:27:10,133 --> 00:27:12,266
{\an1}like I'm just wearing a pair
of reading glasses or something.

571
00:27:12,300 --> 00:27:14,500
{\an1}MULLER:
This is like having
a map of the United States,

572
00:27:14,533 --> 00:27:16,500
and eventually
we want to zoom in,

573
00:27:16,533 --> 00:27:19,800
{\an1}and we wanna pick out one car
parked somewhere in the U.S.

574
00:27:19,833 --> 00:27:25,566
POGUE:
We'll have to zoom in a hundred
million times to see an atom.

575
00:27:25,600 --> 00:27:27,500
{\an1}To understand the scale,

576
00:27:27,533 --> 00:27:29,633
{\an1}imagine if I were
floating in space

577
00:27:29,666 --> 00:27:31,866
{\an1}2,000 miles above the Earth,

578
00:27:31,900 --> 00:27:33,866
looking down
at the United States.

579
00:27:33,900 --> 00:27:36,366
{\an1}Zooming in a hundred
million times

580
00:27:36,400 --> 00:27:39,233
{\an1}would allow me to pick out
not just a car,

581
00:27:39,266 --> 00:27:43,833
{\an1}but a bug crawling in the grass
next to it.

582
00:27:43,866 --> 00:27:44,766
{\an1}So we can zoom in from here?

583
00:27:44,800 --> 00:27:45,700
Absolutely.

584
00:27:45,733 --> 00:27:47,100
{\an1}How do you do that?

585
00:27:47,133 --> 00:27:48,866
{\an1}So there's the zoom button.

586
00:27:48,900 --> 00:27:51,066
POGUE:
The big knob labeled
"Magnification"?

587
00:27:51,100 --> 00:27:52,666
{\an1}MULLER:
Absolutely.

588
00:27:52,700 --> 00:27:56,366
{\an1}So crank up the mag and let's
see what happens as you zoom in.

589
00:27:56,400 --> 00:27:57,866
POGUE:
Wait!

590
00:27:57,900 --> 00:27:59,566
I see a little tiny
cartoon sign

591
00:27:59,600 --> 00:28:02,566
that says,
"Welcome to Whoville!"

592
00:28:02,600 --> 00:28:08,166
POGUE:
To see atoms, we need to find
an interesting region to sample.

593
00:28:08,200 --> 00:28:10,900
{\an1}Now it's starting to look like
an alien surface.

594
00:28:10,933 --> 00:28:12,066
{\an1}MULLER:
Right.

595
00:28:12,100 --> 00:28:13,733
{\an1}Now what we're actually
starting to see

596
00:28:13,766 --> 00:28:17,500
{\an1}is the microstructure
of the grains in that bronze.

597
00:28:17,533 --> 00:28:19,333
{\an1}And the brighter colors

598
00:28:19,366 --> 00:28:21,500
are things that
contain more tin.

599
00:28:21,533 --> 00:28:23,833
{\an1}And the things with less tin

600
00:28:23,866 --> 00:28:25,133
{\an1}are the things
that are slightly darker.

601
00:28:25,166 --> 00:28:27,133
Oh my gosh,
that is so cool.

602
00:28:27,166 --> 00:28:30,733
POGUE:
The microscopic structure
of metals is not uniform.

603
00:28:30,766 --> 00:28:34,333
{\an1}Small features called grains
become visible.

604
00:28:34,366 --> 00:28:37,300
{\an1}Boundaries between grains
are actually defects

605
00:28:37,333 --> 00:28:40,533
{\an1}in the orderly arrangement
of the atoms.

606
00:28:40,566 --> 00:28:43,400
{\an1}So you can't see atoms
with this microscope.

607
00:28:43,433 --> 00:28:45,500
{\an1}We can get almost all the way
there, but not quite.

608
00:28:45,533 --> 00:28:46,666
{\an1}Okay.

609
00:28:46,700 --> 00:28:49,766
{\an1}And to look at atoms, we're
gonna need a bigger machine.

610
00:28:49,800 --> 00:28:50,833
{\an1}Do you have one?

611
00:28:50,866 --> 00:28:52,466
We certainly do.

612
00:28:52,500 --> 00:28:54,233
{\an1}This huge thing?

613
00:28:54,266 --> 00:28:57,466
{\an1}This giant room-size thing
in a shipping container?

614
00:28:57,500 --> 00:29:01,633
{\an1}And why is it draped
in shipping crate material?

615
00:29:01,666 --> 00:29:03,533
{\an1}Those are acoustic blankets.

616
00:29:03,566 --> 00:29:06,566
They are meant to absorb
and reflect sound

617
00:29:06,600 --> 00:29:08,866
{\an1}because the microscope itself
is so sensitive

618
00:29:08,900 --> 00:29:10,300
{\an1}that if you were to talk,

619
00:29:10,333 --> 00:29:12,633
just the pressure wave
from your voice is gonna...

620
00:29:12,666 --> 00:29:15,233
is gonna give enough
mechanical vibration

621
00:29:15,266 --> 00:29:17,366
{\an1}to shake this thing around.

622
00:29:17,400 --> 00:29:20,566
{\an1}We only have to shake things by
an atom for the image to vanish.

623
00:29:20,600 --> 00:29:21,966
{\an1}So our little piece of bronze

624
00:29:22,000 --> 00:29:24,866
{\an1}that we've dug out
of the first machine

625
00:29:24,900 --> 00:29:26,933
{\an1}is now the little
black disc there?

626
00:29:26,966 --> 00:29:28,666
{\an8}Well, that's the three-
millimeter support disc.

627
00:29:28,700 --> 00:29:30,866
{\an7}The actual bronze chip itself

628
00:29:30,900 --> 00:29:33,033
{\an8}is about a hundredth
the thickness of a human hair.

629
00:29:33,066 --> 00:29:35,433
{\an8}It's too small
for us to see,

630
00:29:35,466 --> 00:29:37,066
so we have to mount it
on a carrier grid

631
00:29:37,100 --> 00:29:38,366
so we can handle it.

632
00:29:38,400 --> 00:29:39,866
{\an1}Oh, so you've essentially
put it on a little plate.

633
00:29:39,900 --> 00:29:41,133
That's right.

634
00:29:41,166 --> 00:29:43,000
{\an1}Are you telling me that
I can see individual atoms

635
00:29:43,033 --> 00:29:45,133
{\an1}of my piece of bell?

636
00:29:45,166 --> 00:29:47,000
That's correct.

637
00:29:47,033 --> 00:29:50,500
POGUE:
Scientists have understood
since the early 20th century

638
00:29:50,533 --> 00:29:52,800
{\an1}that metals are crystals.

639
00:29:52,833 --> 00:29:55,866
{\an1}That is, they have an orderly
arrangement of atoms.

640
00:29:55,900 --> 00:29:58,800
{\an1}By bombarding samples
with x-rays,

641
00:29:58,833 --> 00:30:01,200
{\an1}they were able to create
shadowy images

642
00:30:01,233 --> 00:30:03,333
{\an1}of that crystal structure.

643
00:30:03,366 --> 00:30:06,533
{\an1}But the idea that we might
one day see actual atoms

644
00:30:06,566 --> 00:30:08,766
{\an1}was beyond imagination.

645
00:30:08,800 --> 00:30:11,900
{\an1}If David's microscope
is powerful enough,

646
00:30:11,933 --> 00:30:14,333
{\an1}we should see regular rows
of copper atoms

647
00:30:14,366 --> 00:30:17,400
{\an1}with tin atoms packed
in between.

648
00:30:17,433 --> 00:30:19,200
{\an1}Or so the theory predicts.

649
00:30:19,233 --> 00:30:20,100
The dots are atoms?

650
00:30:20,133 --> 00:30:22,033
That's right.

651
00:30:22,066 --> 00:30:23,566
Each individual dot
is an atom.

652
00:30:23,600 --> 00:30:26,966
{\an1}We are seeing actual atoms
of my little bell piece?

653
00:30:27,000 --> 00:30:29,866
{\an1}MULLER:
The bright ones,
those are the tin atoms,

654
00:30:29,900 --> 00:30:33,400
{\an1}and the slightly darker ones,
those are the copper atoms.

655
00:30:33,433 --> 00:30:35,300
{\an1}And isn't it kind of like
a mind-blower

656
00:30:35,333 --> 00:30:39,200
{\an1}that we're actually looking
at actual atoms?

657
00:30:39,233 --> 00:30:42,333
{\an1}I mean, isn't this a historic
technological achievement?

658
00:30:42,366 --> 00:30:44,666
{\an7}Every time people see
that for the first time,

659
00:30:44,700 --> 00:30:45,833
{\an8}they get really excited.

660
00:30:45,866 --> 00:30:51,400
{\an8}POGUE:
To actually see atoms-- amazing!

661
00:30:51,433 --> 00:30:53,633
Well, what can we learn
about this?

662
00:30:53,666 --> 00:30:54,800
{\an1}Like, for one thing,

663
00:30:54,833 --> 00:30:56,200
{\an1}I notice they're really,
really grid-like.

664
00:30:56,233 --> 00:30:59,866
{\an1}They're like a little aerial
photo of a planned community.

665
00:30:59,900 --> 00:31:02,833
{\an1}That's actually the stacking
of the atoms in the material.

666
00:31:02,866 --> 00:31:04,500
{\an1}The pattern that
it orders into,

667
00:31:04,533 --> 00:31:06,700
that is the crystal
structure directly.

668
00:31:06,733 --> 00:31:09,733
POGUE:
David tells me we got
very lucky.

669
00:31:09,766 --> 00:31:12,866
{\an1}The atoms in our bronze
are unusually well-ordered.

670
00:31:12,900 --> 00:31:17,933
{\an1}Our bell makers must be
true masters of their craft.

671
00:31:17,966 --> 00:31:19,033
{\an1}Well, thanks for my tour

672
00:31:19,066 --> 00:31:20,733
{\an1}into the...
to the unseen

673
00:31:20,766 --> 00:31:22,733
{\an1}and to what used to be
the purely theoretical.

674
00:31:22,766 --> 00:31:25,966
{\an1}I can't believe I can now put on
my resume that I've seen atoms.

675
00:31:26,000 --> 00:31:27,333
{\an1}Thanks for the tour.

676
00:31:27,366 --> 00:31:28,833
It was a pleasure.

677
00:31:28,866 --> 00:31:31,933
POGUE:
This amazing ability
to see atoms

678
00:31:31,966 --> 00:31:34,133
{\an1}has opened up new worlds
for scientists.

679
00:31:34,166 --> 00:31:37,366
Muller's lab has
successfully captured

680
00:31:37,400 --> 00:31:43,700
{\an1}many other images of atoms
in gold and computer chips,

681
00:31:43,733 --> 00:31:50,266
{\an1}oxygen, powerful magnets,
and even glass.

682
00:31:50,300 --> 00:31:53,400
{\an1}But even so, they've barely
scratched the surface

683
00:31:53,433 --> 00:31:54,966
{\an1}because they can discern

684
00:31:55,000 --> 00:31:58,466
{\an1}only the outermost boundaries
around atoms.

685
00:31:58,500 --> 00:32:01,900
{\an1}The interior is 10,000 times
smaller.

686
00:32:01,933 --> 00:32:05,700
{\an1}If the outer boundary
of a hydrogen atom,

687
00:32:05,733 --> 00:32:07,433
{\an1}where the electron is found,

688
00:32:07,466 --> 00:32:11,800
{\an1}were enlarged to be two miles
wide, about the size of a city,

689
00:32:11,833 --> 00:32:14,133
{\an1}the single proton in its nucleus

690
00:32:14,166 --> 00:32:16,333
{\an1}would be the size
of a golf ball.

691
00:32:16,366 --> 00:32:19,900
{\an1}It's here we find elements
at their most elemental,

692
00:32:19,933 --> 00:32:22,333
{\an1}because every nucleus
contains protons

693
00:32:22,366 --> 00:32:24,200
{\an1}and it's the number of protons

694
00:32:24,233 --> 00:32:27,533
{\an1}that determines what kind
of element the atom is.

695
00:32:27,566 --> 00:32:29,600
{\an1}One proton is hydrogen.

696
00:32:31,500 --> 00:32:33,700
{\an1}Two protons, helium.

697
00:32:34,766 --> 00:32:36,533
{\an1}Three protons, lithium.

698
00:32:36,566 --> 00:32:39,466
{\an1}Four protons, beryllium.

699
00:32:39,500 --> 00:32:44,300
{\an1}All the way up to element 118,
with 118 protons.

700
00:32:44,333 --> 00:32:47,466
{\an1}The number of protons is called
the atomic number,

701
00:32:47,500 --> 00:32:50,333
{\an1}and it's the fundamental
organizing principle

702
00:32:50,366 --> 00:32:52,433
{\an1}of every table of the elements.

703
00:32:52,466 --> 00:32:54,733
{\an1}Including this one.

704
00:32:54,766 --> 00:32:57,033
Wow, this is cool.

705
00:32:57,066 --> 00:32:59,866
{\an1}You have a periodic table
table!

706
00:32:59,900 --> 00:33:01,833
THEO GRAY:
Well, it's called
the periodic table,

707
00:33:01,866 --> 00:33:03,566
{\an1}why do people keep putting them
on the wall?

708
00:33:03,600 --> 00:33:06,900
POGUE:
Every high school student
has seen the elements chart

709
00:33:06,933 --> 00:33:10,500
{\an1}but author Theo Gray's version
is unique--

710
00:33:10,533 --> 00:33:13,700
{\an1}handmade, with each element's
identity card

711
00:33:13,733 --> 00:33:17,433
{\an1}meticulously carved
into the wood.

712
00:33:17,466 --> 00:33:19,900
{\an7}But I have to say I've never
completely gotten it, right?

713
00:33:19,933 --> 00:33:21,800
{\an7}They're filled with stats
and figures

714
00:33:21,833 --> 00:33:23,866
{\an7}that don't make any sense
to the ordinary person.

715
00:33:23,900 --> 00:33:25,066
{\an1}Theo gives me a refresher.

716
00:33:25,100 --> 00:33:27,666
{\an1}You've got the name
of the element.

717
00:33:27,700 --> 00:33:29,400
{\an1}You've got the atomic symbol.

718
00:33:29,433 --> 00:33:30,433
Ca for calcium.

719
00:33:30,466 --> 00:33:31,800
{\an1}Calcium.

720
00:33:31,833 --> 00:33:33,166
{\an8}Uh, you've got
the atomic number,

721
00:33:33,200 --> 00:33:34,733
{\an7}which is the number of protons

722
00:33:34,766 --> 00:33:36,833
{\an7}in the nucleus of each atom
of that element.

723
00:33:36,866 --> 00:33:39,200
{\an1}It's probably the most important
thing on this tile.

724
00:33:39,233 --> 00:33:40,200
So where's gold?

725
00:33:40,233 --> 00:33:41,333
{\an1}Gold's right there,
number 79.

726
00:33:41,366 --> 00:33:43,266
Okay, so here's
a classic example.

727
00:33:43,300 --> 00:33:46,500
{\an1}They would do much better
with marketing this table

728
00:33:46,533 --> 00:33:48,266
if the name
and the symbol matched.

729
00:33:48,300 --> 00:33:51,166
Gold doesn't even have
"Au" in it.

730
00:33:51,200 --> 00:33:53,666
{\an1}The symbol is based on
the Latin name, aurum.

731
00:33:53,700 --> 00:33:56,200
{\an1}And if you think about it,
the name of each element

732
00:33:56,233 --> 00:33:57,866
{\an1}is the least important piece
of information

733
00:33:57,900 --> 00:33:59,200
{\an1}you could possibly have.

734
00:33:59,233 --> 00:34:00,566
{\an1}What matters about elements

735
00:34:00,600 --> 00:34:02,333
{\an1}is that they are real
physical substances

736
00:34:02,366 --> 00:34:04,300
{\an1}with properties and things
you can do with them.

737
00:34:04,333 --> 00:34:09,100
POGUE:
Theo makes the point by putting
me in touch with the real deal.

738
00:34:09,133 --> 00:34:10,866
Oh...

739
00:34:10,900 --> 00:34:13,733
{\an1}I see what you've done.

740
00:34:13,766 --> 00:34:15,633
{\an1}To make the entire table
less abstract,

741
00:34:15,666 --> 00:34:16,966
{\an1}he invites me to lay out

742
00:34:17,000 --> 00:34:20,600
{\an1}the rest of his collection
of pure elements.

743
00:34:27,300 --> 00:34:30,300
Well, this is really
pretty amazing.

744
00:34:30,333 --> 00:34:33,633
{\an1}This is a visual representation
of every single element

745
00:34:33,666 --> 00:34:35,533
{\an1}that makes up this entire planet
and everything on it.

746
00:34:35,566 --> 00:34:39,133
POGUE:
Then Theo reminds me
of something I'd forgotten.

747
00:34:39,166 --> 00:34:41,100
{\an1}As we can clearly see,

748
00:34:41,133 --> 00:34:45,333
{\an1}more than 70% of the elements
on the table are metals--

749
00:34:45,366 --> 00:34:47,833
{\an1}shiny, malleable materials
that conduct electricity.

750
00:34:47,866 --> 00:34:49,533
{\an1}GRAY:
There's sort of
a diagonal line here.

751
00:34:49,566 --> 00:34:51,400
{\an1}Everything from here on over,

752
00:34:51,433 --> 00:34:54,366
{\an1}including the bottom part,
is all metals.

753
00:34:54,400 --> 00:34:56,866
{\an1}Everything from here on over
is non-metals.

754
00:34:56,900 --> 00:34:58,400
{\an1}And down the middle

755
00:34:58,433 --> 00:35:00,400
{\an1}are these kind of halfway
in between things

756
00:35:00,433 --> 00:35:02,566
{\an1}which include, for example,
semiconductors.

757
00:35:02,600 --> 00:35:03,733
{\an1}Like silicon.
Silicon, right.

758
00:35:03,766 --> 00:35:06,566
I have to say,
many of these elements

759
00:35:06,600 --> 00:35:08,200
look the way
you would think--

760
00:35:08,233 --> 00:35:09,900
gold looks like gold,
silver looks like silver--

761
00:35:09,933 --> 00:35:11,200
{\an1}but not all of them.

762
00:35:11,233 --> 00:35:14,100
{\an1}The one I was looking at
in particular was calcium.

763
00:35:14,133 --> 00:35:15,266
Most people probably
think of calcium

764
00:35:15,300 --> 00:35:16,400
as white and chalky,
you know.

765
00:35:16,433 --> 00:35:18,666
It's bone, it's chalk,

766
00:35:18,700 --> 00:35:20,500
{\an1}it's, uh, it's milk.

767
00:35:20,533 --> 00:35:23,466
{\an1}But this is a silver,
shiny metal.

768
00:35:23,500 --> 00:35:25,600
POGUE:
This is when Theo's collection

769
00:35:25,633 --> 00:35:27,500
{\an1}starts to get really
interesting:

770
00:35:27,533 --> 00:35:31,533
{\an1}when he pairs the pure elements
with their more familiar forms.

771
00:35:31,566 --> 00:35:34,000
{\an1}Like pure calcium metal

772
00:35:34,033 --> 00:35:37,266
{\an1}combine with other elements
to make bone.

773
00:35:37,300 --> 00:35:40,133
{\an1}Bismuth, in stomach medicine.

774
00:35:40,166 --> 00:35:44,433
{\an1}Bromine, in soda.

775
00:35:44,466 --> 00:35:46,433
{\an1}And even this element,

776
00:35:46,466 --> 00:35:49,566
hiding out
in collectible Fiesta ware.

777
00:35:49,600 --> 00:35:54,000
{\an1}This bowl from the 1930s gets
its orange color from uranium,

778
00:35:54,033 --> 00:35:57,533
{\an1}and it's actually dangerously
radioactive.

779
00:35:57,566 --> 00:36:00,266
{\an1}Theo's table and his
remarkable collection

780
00:36:00,300 --> 00:36:02,233
{\an1}make a powerful point.

781
00:36:02,266 --> 00:36:04,333
{\an1}From about 90 elements
found on earth,

782
00:36:04,366 --> 00:36:07,833
{\an1}nature and man have derived
millions of different substances

783
00:36:07,866 --> 00:36:09,900
{\an1}that make our world.

784
00:36:09,933 --> 00:36:13,100
{\an1}But to me, there's something
even more amazing:

785
00:36:13,133 --> 00:36:16,366
{\an1}the table organizes the elements
by atomic number--

786
00:36:16,400 --> 00:36:19,866
{\an1}that is, the number of protons
in each atom.

787
00:36:19,900 --> 00:36:22,000
{\an1}Yet the table's creator--

788
00:36:22,033 --> 00:36:24,466
{\an1}a 19th-century Russian
chemistry professor

789
00:36:24,500 --> 00:36:26,866
{\an1}named Dmitri Mendeleev--

790
00:36:26,900 --> 00:36:30,500
{\an1}knew nothing about protons
or atomic numbers.

791
00:36:30,533 --> 00:36:34,666
{\an1}Even the atom itself
hadn't been discovered.

792
00:36:34,700 --> 00:36:38,833
{\an1}To understand how he cracked
the code of the table,

793
00:36:38,866 --> 00:36:43,200
{\an1}I've come to St. Petersburg,
Russia, to the State University

794
00:36:43,233 --> 00:36:46,166
{\an1}and to Mendeleev's apartment
and office.

795
00:36:46,200 --> 00:36:49,600
{\an1}In the late 1860s,
at this very desk,

796
00:36:49,633 --> 00:36:51,366
{\an1}Mendeleev set out to discover

797
00:36:51,400 --> 00:36:55,133
{\an1}the underlying order
to the elements.

798
00:36:55,166 --> 00:36:57,133
{\an1}In one often-repeated story,

799
00:36:57,166 --> 00:37:01,333
{\an1}Mendeleev is said to have
created 63 cards,

800
00:37:01,366 --> 00:37:04,633
{\an1}one for each of the elements
known at the time.

801
00:37:04,666 --> 00:37:06,766
{\an1}He distinguished them
not by atomic number,

802
00:37:06,800 --> 00:37:09,600
{\an1}but by atomic weight.

803
00:37:09,633 --> 00:37:11,466
So he didn't know
about atoms,

804
00:37:11,500 --> 00:37:13,566
but isn't this
the atomic weight?

805
00:37:13,600 --> 00:37:16,233
{\an1}How does he know the weight
if he doesn't know about atoms?

806
00:37:16,266 --> 00:37:19,966
{\an1}(speaking Russian)

807
00:37:20,000 --> 00:37:25,333
{\an1}(translated):
It's not in grams
or pounds or kilograms.

808
00:37:25,366 --> 00:37:28,266
{\an1}In the 19th century,
they did it like this.

809
00:37:28,300 --> 00:37:30,866
{\an1}They compared the weights
of different elements

810
00:37:30,900 --> 00:37:32,700
{\an1}to the lightest, hydrogen.

811
00:37:32,733 --> 00:37:34,000
{\an1}So when they say oxygen is 16,

812
00:37:34,033 --> 00:37:39,033
{\an1}that means 16 times
the weight of hydrogen.

813
00:37:39,066 --> 00:37:42,900
POGUE:
19th-century scientists
relied on relative weight

814
00:37:42,933 --> 00:37:45,166
{\an1}to order the elements.

815
00:37:45,200 --> 00:37:47,633
{\an1}Imagine if you have
two containers,

816
00:37:47,666 --> 00:37:50,733
{\an1}one full of red marbles,
one full of blue marbles.

817
00:37:50,766 --> 00:37:53,533
{\an1}If both contain the same number
of marbles,

818
00:37:53,566 --> 00:37:56,500
{\an1}but the blue container
weighs twice as much,

819
00:37:56,533 --> 00:37:59,633
{\an1}you can infer that the blue
marbles weigh twice as much

820
00:37:59,666 --> 00:38:01,433
{\an1}as the red marbles,

821
00:38:01,466 --> 00:38:03,900
{\an1}even if you can't see
the marbles at all.

822
00:38:03,933 --> 00:38:06,966
{\an1}Early chemists devised
clever ways

823
00:38:07,000 --> 00:38:10,500
{\an1}of calculating the weights
of elements-- even gases--

824
00:38:10,533 --> 00:38:15,266
{\an1}relative to the lightest one:
hydrogen.

825
00:38:15,300 --> 00:38:16,733
So the chemists knew
that different elements

826
00:38:16,766 --> 00:38:18,233
have different weights.

827
00:38:18,266 --> 00:38:21,133
But why not just
one big line forever?

828
00:38:21,166 --> 00:38:24,933
{\an1}(translated):
Mendeleev decided that he would
arrange them by weight,

829
00:38:24,966 --> 00:38:28,800
{\an7}but also by family.

830
00:38:28,833 --> 00:38:31,166
POGUE:
This is one of Mendeleev's
charts.

831
00:38:31,200 --> 00:38:34,866
{\an1}You can see hydrogen sticking
out just as it does today.

832
00:38:34,900 --> 00:38:38,033
{\an1}The families he knew are
now arranged in columns.

833
00:38:38,066 --> 00:38:42,566
{\an1}This one has the metals--
lithium, sodium, and potassium--

834
00:38:42,600 --> 00:38:44,900
{\an1}that explode in water.

835
00:38:44,933 --> 00:38:47,433
{\an1}Next door, calcium
and magnesium,

836
00:38:47,466 --> 00:38:49,833
{\an1}which also react with water.

837
00:38:49,866 --> 00:38:53,033
{\an1}This big block in the middle are
metals that are safe to handle,

838
00:38:53,066 --> 00:38:56,733
like nickel,
iron, zinc, and gold.

839
00:38:56,766 --> 00:39:00,933
{\an1}As we go to the right, the
elements become less metallic.

840
00:39:00,966 --> 00:39:04,566
{\an1}These columns are headed
by boron, carbon, and nitrogen.

841
00:39:04,600 --> 00:39:06,466
{\an1}In this neighborhood,

842
00:39:06,500 --> 00:39:09,466
{\an1}some elements conduct
electricity, some don't,

843
00:39:09,500 --> 00:39:11,933
{\an1}and some can't make up
their minds.

844
00:39:11,966 --> 00:39:14,300
But next door
is a more volatile crowd,

845
00:39:14,333 --> 00:39:17,333
{\an1}headed by oxygen and fluorine.

846
00:39:17,366 --> 00:39:21,466
{\an1}The table gets its shape from
the properties of the elements,

847
00:39:21,500 --> 00:39:25,533
{\an1}like relative weight,
conductivity, and reactivity.

848
00:39:25,566 --> 00:39:29,433
{\an1}It's true today as it was
in Mendeleev's time.

849
00:39:29,466 --> 00:39:31,666
{\an1}Though his chart displayed

850
00:39:31,700 --> 00:39:34,200
{\an1}only the 63 elements known
at the time,

851
00:39:34,233 --> 00:39:37,466
{\an1}his understanding of the family
properties was so strong

852
00:39:37,500 --> 00:39:40,433
{\an1}he was able to leave gaps
in his chart,

853
00:39:40,466 --> 00:39:45,066
{\an1}bold predictions of elements
yet to be discovered.

854
00:39:45,100 --> 00:39:47,600
{\an1}And when they were eventually
found, they proved

855
00:39:47,633 --> 00:39:50,433
{\an1}completely consistent
with his descriptions.

856
00:39:50,466 --> 00:39:53,500
{\an1}Mendeleev lived until 1907,

857
00:39:53,533 --> 00:39:56,333
{\an1}long enough to see
three gaps filled

858
00:39:56,366 --> 00:40:00,766
{\an1}by the discoveries of scandium,
gallium, and germanium.

859
00:40:00,800 --> 00:40:04,766
{\an1}Since his death, dozens of new
elements have been discovered.

860
00:40:04,800 --> 00:40:06,366
And, incredibly,

861
00:40:06,400 --> 00:40:09,366
{\an1}his chart perfectly
accommodates all of them,

862
00:40:09,400 --> 00:40:11,900
{\an1}including an entire group
that fits neatly

863
00:40:11,933 --> 00:40:13,733
{\an1}onto the end of the table:

864
00:40:13,766 --> 00:40:15,833
the noble gases.

865
00:40:15,866 --> 00:40:18,266
Where does that term
"noble gases" come from?

866
00:40:18,300 --> 00:40:20,233
Are they nobility?

867
00:40:20,266 --> 00:40:21,733
Do they rush
to rescue maidens?

868
00:40:21,766 --> 00:40:23,533
{\an1}No, you're thinking
of heroes.

869
00:40:23,566 --> 00:40:25,233
{\an1}They are like nobility
in the sense that

870
00:40:25,266 --> 00:40:26,600
they don't mix
with the riff-raff.

871
00:40:26,633 --> 00:40:28,933
{\an1}They don't like to react
with any other elements.

872
00:40:28,966 --> 00:40:31,766
{\an1}By and large, it's not possible
to form compounds with them.

873
00:40:31,800 --> 00:40:34,566
{\an1}Well, it's a shame for your
collection that they're gases,

874
00:40:34,600 --> 00:40:37,300
because you've got
big blanks here.

875
00:40:37,333 --> 00:40:40,800
Oh, ho-ho-ho!

876
00:40:40,833 --> 00:40:43,333
POGUE:
The noble gases,
like neon and argon,

877
00:40:43,366 --> 00:40:46,033
{\an1}pose a problem for chemists
who prefer their elements

878
00:40:46,066 --> 00:40:49,166
to join forces
and react with each other.

879
00:40:49,200 --> 00:40:51,733
{\an1}You can run an electric current
through them,

880
00:40:51,766 --> 00:40:54,700
{\an1}excite their electrons,
and get pretty colors--

881
00:40:54,733 --> 00:40:56,833
{\an1}which is how neon lights work--

882
00:40:56,866 --> 00:40:58,733
{\an1}but the noble gases don't react.

883
00:40:58,766 --> 00:41:03,000
{\an1}They pretty much refuse
to combine with other elements.

884
00:41:03,033 --> 00:41:04,900
{\an1}GRAY:
Being an inert gas,
being unwilling to mix

885
00:41:04,933 --> 00:41:06,866
{\an1}with the other elements,
react with them--

886
00:41:06,900 --> 00:41:08,600
{\an1}this is a very clear-cut
distinction

887
00:41:08,633 --> 00:41:10,366
{\an1}that sets apart
this particular column

888
00:41:10,400 --> 00:41:12,366
{\an1}from all the others
in the periodic table.

889
00:41:12,400 --> 00:41:14,900
POGUE:
So why are these guys so aloof?

890
00:41:14,933 --> 00:41:16,566
As it turns out,

891
00:41:16,600 --> 00:41:19,800
{\an1}protons may determine
the identity of an element,

892
00:41:19,833 --> 00:41:22,666
{\an1}but electrons rule
its reactivity.

893
00:41:22,700 --> 00:41:25,833
{\an1}And reactivity is a shell game.

894
00:41:25,866 --> 00:41:28,000
{\an1}Here's how the game is played.

895
00:41:29,200 --> 00:41:31,700
{\an1}Imagine that these balls
are electrons

896
00:41:31,733 --> 00:41:33,800
{\an1}and the target is an atom.

897
00:41:33,833 --> 00:41:38,266
{\an1}Electrons don't just pile on
around the nucleus.

898
00:41:38,300 --> 00:41:39,666
{\an1}As with skee ball,

899
00:41:39,700 --> 00:41:42,433
{\an1}where you land relative
to the center counts.

900
00:41:42,466 --> 00:41:44,266
{\an1}Oh come on!

901
00:41:44,300 --> 00:41:46,233
{\an1}The electrons take up positions

902
00:41:46,266 --> 00:41:49,966
{\an1}in what can be thought of
as concentric shells.

903
00:41:50,000 --> 00:41:53,733
{\an1}The first shell maxes out
at just two electrons.

904
00:41:53,766 --> 00:41:55,633
{\an1}The next holds eight,

905
00:41:55,666 --> 00:41:58,300
{\an1}then it goes up to eighteen.

906
00:41:58,333 --> 00:42:00,866
{\an1}An atom with eight electrons
in its outer shell

907
00:42:00,900 --> 00:42:04,333
makes one happy,
satisfied atom.

908
00:42:04,366 --> 00:42:06,466
And noble gases
come pre-equipped

909
00:42:06,500 --> 00:42:10,400
with completely
satisfied shells.

910
00:42:10,433 --> 00:42:11,666
{\an1}And is this the only column
like that?

911
00:42:11,700 --> 00:42:12,733
{\an1}It's the only column

912
00:42:12,766 --> 00:42:14,833
{\an1}where all the shells
are completely filled.

913
00:42:14,866 --> 00:42:18,733
POGUE:
But what about the column just
before those stable noble gases?

914
00:42:18,766 --> 00:42:21,000
{\an1}They're called the halogens.

915
00:42:21,033 --> 00:42:22,600
{\an1}They have an outer shell

916
00:42:22,633 --> 00:42:25,500
{\an1}that needs just one more
electron to be full.

917
00:42:25,533 --> 00:42:28,666
{\an1}And they'll grab it
any way they can.

918
00:42:28,700 --> 00:42:31,000
{\an1}The group includes fluorine
and bromine,

919
00:42:31,033 --> 00:42:35,333
{\an1}but the most notorious
is chlorine--

920
00:42:35,366 --> 00:42:40,600
17 protons
surrounded by 17 electrons,

921
00:42:40,633 --> 00:42:44,266
{\an1}arranged in three shells
of two, eight, and seven,

922
00:42:44,300 --> 00:42:46,533
{\an1}one short of being full.

923
00:42:46,566 --> 00:42:48,366
{\an1}It's that extra electron

924
00:42:48,400 --> 00:42:50,466
{\an1}chlorine will get
any way it can,

925
00:42:50,500 --> 00:42:53,166
{\an1}sometimes with violent results.

926
00:42:54,500 --> 00:42:56,800
{\an1}That's why chlorine gas was used

927
00:42:56,833 --> 00:43:00,700
{\an1}as a deadly poison
in World War One.

928
00:43:00,733 --> 00:43:02,900
{\an1}Chlorine, I mean,
this is nasty stuff.

929
00:43:02,933 --> 00:43:05,600
{\an1}This will take electrons
from kittens.

930
00:43:05,633 --> 00:43:08,033
{\an1}It'll go and steal an electron
off the water in your lungs

931
00:43:08,066 --> 00:43:11,033
{\an1}and turn into
hydrochloric acid

932
00:43:11,066 --> 00:43:13,000
{\an1}because it really wants
an electron.

933
00:43:13,033 --> 00:43:14,933
{\an1}Yeah, maybe I'll leave that
where it was.

934
00:43:14,966 --> 00:43:16,666
{\an1}Now, if you go
the other direction,

935
00:43:16,700 --> 00:43:18,600
{\an1}you end up with
the alkali metals.

936
00:43:18,633 --> 00:43:21,333
POGUE:
The alkali metals
are the first column.

937
00:43:21,366 --> 00:43:23,966
{\an1}Each of them has full shells

938
00:43:24,000 --> 00:43:28,066
{\an1}plus one extra electron sitting
in a new, outer shell.

939
00:43:28,100 --> 00:43:32,333
{\an1}They have familiar names like
lithium, sodium, and potassium.

940
00:43:32,366 --> 00:43:36,066
{\an1}And they all want to get rid of
that single, lonely electron

941
00:43:36,100 --> 00:43:38,066
{\an1}any way they can.

942
00:43:38,100 --> 00:43:40,700
So those on that end
of the table all have one extra.

943
00:43:40,733 --> 00:43:43,233
This column all has
one too few.

944
00:43:43,266 --> 00:43:44,900
{\an1}I shudder to ask what happens

945
00:43:44,933 --> 00:43:46,400
{\an1}if you put those two alone
in a room.

946
00:43:46,433 --> 00:43:48,700
{\an1}I happen to have a place where
we might be able to do that.

947
00:43:48,733 --> 00:43:50,733
Am I invited?

948
00:43:50,766 --> 00:43:53,100
{\an1}Please, come to my lair.

949
00:43:53,133 --> 00:43:55,700
POGUE:
Turns out there's more
to my friend Theo

950
00:43:55,733 --> 00:43:57,966
{\an1}than mere love of table.

951
00:43:58,000 --> 00:44:01,733
{\an1}He's also got a deep love
of chemical reactions,

952
00:44:01,766 --> 00:44:06,266
{\an1}and a very remote location where
he's free to indulge it.

953
00:44:06,300 --> 00:44:08,466
{\an1}Okay, they told me you were
outstanding in your field,

954
00:44:08,500 --> 00:44:09,833
{\an1}but this is ridiculous.

955
00:44:09,866 --> 00:44:11,533
Yeah, well,
you know the secret

956
00:44:11,566 --> 00:44:15,800
{\an1}to a good mad scientist's lair:
no neighbors.

957
00:44:15,833 --> 00:44:18,300
POGUE:
Theo has an infectious attitude

958
00:44:18,333 --> 00:44:20,533
toward the most
reactive elements...

959
00:44:20,566 --> 00:44:21,966
Nice!

960
00:44:22,000 --> 00:44:24,300
{\an1}...which reminds me
of a snake handler's affection

961
00:44:24,333 --> 00:44:26,566
{\an1}for his most venomous pets.

962
00:44:26,600 --> 00:44:27,633
Oh!

963
00:44:27,666 --> 00:44:30,200
Oh, the humanity!

964
00:44:34,866 --> 00:44:36,933
POGUE:
And one of his favorite
temperamental friends?

965
00:44:36,966 --> 00:44:38,300
Sodium.

966
00:44:38,333 --> 00:44:40,466
Symbol: Na.

967
00:44:40,500 --> 00:44:42,800
{\an1}11 protons and 11 electrons

968
00:44:42,833 --> 00:44:47,633
{\an1}arranged in shells
as two, eight, and one.

969
00:44:47,666 --> 00:44:49,800
{\an1}Sodium is an alkali metal.

970
00:44:49,833 --> 00:44:52,366
{\an1}Like all the elements
in this group,

971
00:44:52,400 --> 00:44:56,400
{\an1}it's desperate to get rid
of that extra electron.

972
00:44:56,433 --> 00:44:57,533
If you cut it quickly...

973
00:44:57,566 --> 00:44:58,800
{\an1}I should see
some silvery...

974
00:44:58,833 --> 00:45:00,666
... you should see
a silvery surface inside.

975
00:45:00,700 --> 00:45:01,900
{\an1}Indeed.

976
00:45:01,933 --> 00:45:03,200
{\an1}Wow.

977
00:45:03,233 --> 00:45:05,733
POGUE:
It slices like cheese,
but it's actually a soft metal.

978
00:45:05,766 --> 00:45:08,000
{\an1}Theo's offered to put on

979
00:45:08,033 --> 00:45:10,700
{\an1}one of his favorite
sodium demonstrations.

980
00:45:10,733 --> 00:45:15,200
{\an1}What happens when the pure
element dumps its outer electron

981
00:45:15,233 --> 00:45:18,400
{\an1}in a violent altercation
with ordinary water?

982
00:45:18,433 --> 00:45:20,366
{\an1}He insists we wait
until nightfall,

983
00:45:20,400 --> 00:45:23,033
{\an1}when the reaction will be
most spectacular.

984
00:45:23,066 --> 00:45:26,700
{\an1}Kids, do not try this at home!

985
00:45:26,733 --> 00:45:28,533
The whole purpose
of this contraption

986
00:45:28,566 --> 00:45:30,633
is just to dump it
into the bucket of water?

987
00:45:30,666 --> 00:45:32,066
{\an1}Yeah, this is a sodium-dumping
machine.

988
00:45:32,100 --> 00:45:33,466
(laughs)

989
00:45:33,500 --> 00:45:35,533
All right,
let's give this a try.

990
00:45:35,566 --> 00:45:36,900
Here we go!

991
00:45:40,300 --> 00:45:40,833
{\an1}Nice...

992
00:45:40,866 --> 00:45:42,366
(explosion)
Oh!

993
00:45:45,533 --> 00:45:47,066
POGUE:
What we're seeing is
what happens

994
00:45:47,100 --> 00:45:51,733
{\an1}when sodium's extra electron
tears apart water molecules,

995
00:45:51,766 --> 00:45:56,766
{\an7}releasing flammable hydrogen
gas-- the H in H2O--

996
00:45:56,800 --> 00:45:58,833
{\an7}which explodes when it mixes
with air.

997
00:46:01,833 --> 00:46:04,700
The next day,
Theo takes it up a notch.

998
00:46:04,733 --> 00:46:08,433
{\an1}As if sodium plus water
weren't violent enough,

999
00:46:08,466 --> 00:46:11,300
{\an1}now he wants to combine
the same deadly sodium

1000
00:46:11,333 --> 00:46:14,000
{\an1}with another lethal element:

1001
00:46:14,033 --> 00:46:17,300
{\an1}chlorine, one of the halogens.

1002
00:46:17,333 --> 00:46:19,200
{\an1}The result, he claims,

1003
00:46:19,233 --> 00:46:25,700
{\an1}will be a tasty flavoring
for a net full of popcorn.

1004
00:46:25,733 --> 00:46:27,400
{\an1}Isn't chlorine
deadly poison?

1005
00:46:27,433 --> 00:46:28,733
Absolutely.

1006
00:46:28,766 --> 00:46:30,133
I mean, chlorine,
chlorine...

1007
00:46:30,166 --> 00:46:31,866
{\an1}they used it as a poison gas
in World War I.

1008
00:46:31,900 --> 00:46:33,933
POGUE:
It'll be perfectly safe

1009
00:46:33,966 --> 00:46:35,900
when these two deadly
ingredients combine.

1010
00:46:35,933 --> 00:46:37,033
{\an8}I didn't say that.

1011
00:46:37,066 --> 00:46:38,666
{\an8}I said that
after they're combined,

1012
00:46:38,700 --> 00:46:40,100
{\an7}the result is perfectly safe.

1013
00:46:40,133 --> 00:46:42,166
The actual process
of combining them

1014
00:46:42,200 --> 00:46:44,333
{\an1}is fraught with
difficulties.

1015
00:46:44,366 --> 00:46:47,333
{\an1}Okay, and that's why we're
dressed up like miners here.

1016
00:46:50,600 --> 00:46:53,900
POGUE:
First, a hunk of sodium
in a dry metal bowl.

1017
00:46:53,933 --> 00:46:56,600
{\an1}Then, a jet of pure chlorine.

1018
00:46:58,600 --> 00:47:00,766
{\an1}Surprisingly, no explosion.

1019
00:47:00,800 --> 00:47:04,600
{\an1}Somehow, when these two bad boys
of the periodic table

1020
00:47:04,633 --> 00:47:07,200
come together,
they calm down.

1021
00:47:09,133 --> 00:47:12,866
{\an1}At the atomic level,
sodium, an alkali metal,

1022
00:47:12,900 --> 00:47:15,300
{\an1}had an electron it didn't want,

1023
00:47:15,333 --> 00:47:19,766
{\an1}and chlorine, a halogen, wants
desperately to grab an electron.

1024
00:47:19,800 --> 00:47:21,800
{\an1}Once the handoff was complete,

1025
00:47:21,833 --> 00:47:24,533
{\an1}both atoms wound up
with full shells,

1026
00:47:24,566 --> 00:47:27,633
{\an1}making them stable and able
to join together

1027
00:47:27,666 --> 00:47:30,333
{\an1}to form a crystal compound
we can't live without:

1028
00:47:30,366 --> 00:47:32,566
sodium chloride.

1029
00:47:32,600 --> 00:47:33,966
Table salt.

1030
00:47:34,000 --> 00:47:36,733
{\an1}Now I don't exactly see, like,
a pile of salt anywhere.

1031
00:47:36,766 --> 00:47:38,533
No, the salt, most of it
went up in the smoke.

1032
00:47:38,566 --> 00:47:40,866
That is, it went
in the popcorn.

1033
00:47:43,433 --> 00:47:44,500
{\an1}It tastes like salt.

1034
00:47:44,533 --> 00:47:45,400
{\an1}The good stuff.

1035
00:47:45,433 --> 00:47:46,366
{\an1}Fresh.
Fresh salt.

1036
00:47:46,400 --> 00:47:48,300
{\an1}Only the freshest salt
at Theo's farm.

1037
00:47:48,333 --> 00:47:54,233
POGUE:
Theo's backyard reactions have
given me a crucial insight.

1038
00:47:54,266 --> 00:47:56,366
{\an1}How elements come together
to form compounds

1039
00:47:56,400 --> 00:47:58,500
{\an1}is all about electrons.

1040
00:47:58,533 --> 00:48:01,300
{\an1}Which brings me to one
of the most notorious

1041
00:48:01,333 --> 00:48:03,600
{\an1}electron hounds on the table:

1042
00:48:03,633 --> 00:48:04,333
oxygen.

1043
00:48:04,366 --> 00:48:06,433
Symbol: O.

1044
00:48:06,466 --> 00:48:08,933
{\an1}Eight protons, eight electrons.

1045
00:48:08,966 --> 00:48:12,200
{\an1}It wants eight electrons
to complete its outer shell,

1046
00:48:12,233 --> 00:48:14,366
{\an1}but it has only six.

1047
00:48:14,400 --> 00:48:17,266
{\an1}So it's always on the prowl
for two more.

1048
00:48:17,300 --> 00:48:19,266
{\an1}And it's more determined

1049
00:48:19,300 --> 00:48:21,766
{\an1}than almost any other element
on the table.

1050
00:48:21,800 --> 00:48:26,400
{\an1}To get a first-hand look
at oxygen's lust for electrons,

1051
00:48:26,433 --> 00:48:29,900
{\an1}I've traveled to the Energetic
Materials Research

1052
00:48:29,933 --> 00:48:32,933
{\an1}and Testing Center
at New Mexico Tech,

1053
00:48:32,966 --> 00:48:35,600
{\an1}where the business of violent
reactions is booming.

1054
00:48:42,433 --> 00:48:46,200
{\an1}What he has here in the rear is
four pounds of C4.

1055
00:48:46,233 --> 00:48:49,433
{\an1}Four pounds?

1056
00:48:49,466 --> 00:48:51,733
POGUE:
It's a deadly serious business
for researchers who study

1057
00:48:51,766 --> 00:48:55,633
{\an1}improvised explosive devices--
IEDs.

1058
00:48:55,666 --> 00:48:58,000
{\an7}By adding the 5/16ths nuts,
now we have something

1059
00:48:58,033 --> 00:48:59,233
{\an8}that's going to get
propelled out of here

1060
00:48:59,266 --> 00:49:00,666
{\an8}at a few thousand feet
per second.

1061
00:49:00,700 --> 00:49:04,533
POGUE:
They have a wide variety
of explosives on hand.

1062
00:49:04,566 --> 00:49:10,100
{\an1}On a typical day, they might
blow up a suicide vest,

1063
00:49:10,133 --> 00:49:13,633
{\an1}a few pipe bombs,

1064
00:49:13,666 --> 00:49:18,733
{\an1}and a briefcase bomb.

1065
00:49:18,766 --> 00:49:20,733
{\an1}Tim Collister's job is

1066
00:49:20,766 --> 00:49:23,000
{\an1}to train law enforcement
and fire professionals

1067
00:49:23,033 --> 00:49:26,133
{\an1}how to deal with these
dangerous weapons.

1068
00:49:26,166 --> 00:49:29,966
But today,
I'm his only student.

1069
00:49:30,000 --> 00:49:31,900
{\an1}We're going to set off
one of the most powerful

1070
00:49:31,933 --> 00:49:33,733
{\an1}off-the-shelf explosives
there is:

1071
00:49:33,766 --> 00:49:39,466
{\an1}in the trunk of this car,
300 pounds of ANFO,

1072
00:49:39,500 --> 00:49:42,833
{\an1}unassuming white pellets
that contain enough oxygen,

1073
00:49:42,866 --> 00:49:45,466
{\an1}as well as nitrogen
and hydrogen,

1074
00:49:45,500 --> 00:49:48,466
to turn this car
into a scrap heap.

1075
00:49:48,500 --> 00:49:50,833
Basically, it's
a fertilizer bomb.

1076
00:49:50,866 --> 00:49:53,766
This is not something
I'm going to soon forget.

1077
00:49:53,800 --> 00:49:54,633
{\an1}No, you're not.

1078
00:49:54,666 --> 00:49:57,333
COLLISTER:
Three, two, one.

1079
00:50:07,866 --> 00:50:10,700
POGUE:
Hundreds of pounds
of solid explosive,

1080
00:50:10,733 --> 00:50:12,933
{\an1}transformed in a millionth
of a second

1081
00:50:12,966 --> 00:50:16,400
{\an1}into an infernal ball
of superheated gas,

1082
00:50:16,433 --> 00:50:20,733
{\an1}expanding at more than ten times
the speed of sound.

1083
00:50:20,766 --> 00:50:24,766
{\an1}A devastating chemical reaction,
yet many times smaller

1084
00:50:24,800 --> 00:50:28,300
{\an1}than the most notorious
ANFO bomb ever detonated.

1085
00:50:28,333 --> 00:50:34,766
{\an1}In 1995, over 4,000 pounds of
ANFO loaded into a rented truck

1086
00:50:34,800 --> 00:50:37,300
{\an1}destroyed the Federal Building
in Oklahoma City,

1087
00:50:37,333 --> 00:50:41,133
{\an1}killing and injuring
hundreds of people.

1088
00:50:41,166 --> 00:50:44,166
It's incredibly
destructive stuff.

1089
00:50:44,200 --> 00:50:45,666
{\an1}How does it work?

1090
00:50:45,700 --> 00:50:47,500
I don't know about you,

1091
00:50:47,533 --> 00:50:49,633
but I am not seeing
much car over there.

1092
00:50:49,666 --> 00:50:52,900
{\an1}That's 'cause there's
not much car left, David.

1093
00:50:52,933 --> 00:50:55,900
POGUE:
To find out, I turn to the lab's
chief research chemist,

1094
00:50:55,933 --> 00:50:57,166
{\an1}Christa Hockensmith.

1095
00:50:57,200 --> 00:50:59,933
The tires are
still there.

1096
00:50:59,966 --> 00:51:02,633
POGUE:
She's an expert in the chemistry
of explosives.

1097
00:51:02,666 --> 00:51:04,133
Wow.

1098
00:51:04,166 --> 00:51:06,266
HOCKENSMITH:
Whoo, doesn't smell
so good, does it?

1099
00:51:06,300 --> 00:51:07,333
{\an3}No.

1100
00:51:07,366 --> 00:51:09,166
You know, we thought
maybe the engine

1101
00:51:09,200 --> 00:51:11,333
{\an1}would become a projectile
to come hurtling out.

1102
00:51:11,366 --> 00:51:14,866
{\an1}The engine did not leave,
but the entire car did!

1103
00:51:14,900 --> 00:51:16,066
This whole front half...

1104
00:51:16,100 --> 00:51:18,100
{\an1}and the car used to be parked
over there!

1105
00:51:18,133 --> 00:51:19,133
POGUE:
With her help...

1106
00:51:19,166 --> 00:51:21,000
Ah, look at this!

1107
00:51:21,033 --> 00:51:22,533
{\an1}...I'm going to conduct

1108
00:51:22,566 --> 00:51:24,266
{\an1}a forensic investigation
of the blast site.

1109
00:51:24,300 --> 00:51:25,333
Cadillac.

1110
00:51:25,366 --> 00:51:27,266
POGUE:
But there's not much left.

1111
00:51:27,300 --> 00:51:29,933
What kind of evidence
can you derive from this?

1112
00:51:29,966 --> 00:51:31,200
I mean, the car is
totally decimated.

1113
00:51:31,233 --> 00:51:35,166
{\an1}No, we can do good work
on finding out

1114
00:51:35,200 --> 00:51:41,800
{\an1}what caused this explosion
with the magic swabs.

1115
00:51:41,833 --> 00:51:44,766
POGUE:
We know what was
in the bomb...

1116
00:51:44,800 --> 00:51:46,000
I'm getting the hang
of this now.

1117
00:51:46,033 --> 00:51:48,000
{\an1}Yeah, you are,
you're getting good.

1118
00:51:48,033 --> 00:51:49,766
POGUE:
...but in an actual
criminal investigation,

1119
00:51:49,800 --> 00:51:51,400
{\an1}this work is vital.

1120
00:51:51,433 --> 00:51:53,000
We're not picking up
only filth.

1121
00:51:53,033 --> 00:51:55,700
{\an1}What we're picking up is what
the bomb was made with.

1122
00:51:55,733 --> 00:51:57,166
{\an1}You think there's going
to be traces

1123
00:51:57,200 --> 00:51:58,300
{\an1}even on this fragment?

1124
00:51:58,333 --> 00:52:00,100
Not if you stick
your fingers on it, no.

1125
00:52:00,133 --> 00:52:02,700
But otherwise, yes.

1126
00:52:02,733 --> 00:52:04,333
{\an1}What you're gonna find is--

1127
00:52:04,366 --> 00:52:05,866
when we take these
back to the lab--

1128
00:52:05,900 --> 00:52:07,733
that we'll be able
to tell

1129
00:52:07,766 --> 00:52:10,033
{\an1}what elements were present
in the bomb.

1130
00:52:10,066 --> 00:52:13,000
POGUE:
So much energy
released so quickly...

1131
00:52:13,033 --> 00:52:14,800
{\an1}did oxygen have a role?

1132
00:52:14,833 --> 00:52:16,066
Still runs!

1133
00:52:18,566 --> 00:52:21,100
{\an1}So, David, what did you think
of that car bomb?

1134
00:52:21,133 --> 00:52:22,833
Wicked cool.

1135
00:52:22,866 --> 00:52:24,000
Yes, it was.

1136
00:52:24,033 --> 00:52:25,100
{\an1}You have the luckiest job
in the world.

1137
00:52:25,133 --> 00:52:25,966
You got the swab?

1138
00:52:26,000 --> 00:52:27,200
{\an1}Here's your swab.
Okay.

1139
00:52:27,233 --> 00:52:30,500
{\an1}Christa instructs me to dip
the pad into purified water...

1140
00:52:30,533 --> 00:52:32,033
You can shake
this up.

1141
00:52:32,066 --> 00:52:33,500
Like that?

1142
00:52:33,533 --> 00:52:34,933
...to dissolve
any chemical traces

1143
00:52:34,966 --> 00:52:36,433
{\an1}recovered from the debris.

1144
00:52:36,466 --> 00:52:39,766
{\an1}Covered with paper pulp?

1145
00:52:39,800 --> 00:52:41,766
No, covered
with nasty.

1146
00:52:41,800 --> 00:52:42,900
There you are.

1147
00:52:42,933 --> 00:52:44,433
{\an1}You go like this?

1148
00:52:44,466 --> 00:52:45,866
{\an1}Shall I suck it up?

1149
00:52:45,900 --> 00:52:47,400
Please.

1150
00:52:47,433 --> 00:52:50,266
That's plenty.

1151
00:52:50,300 --> 00:52:51,433
{\an1}Okay.

1152
00:52:51,466 --> 00:52:54,100
Stick it right back into
the ion chromatograph.

1153
00:52:54,133 --> 00:52:56,233
{\an1}Okay, you'll just feel
a little pinch...

1154
00:52:56,266 --> 00:52:58,066
POGUE:
The ion chromatograph

1155
00:52:58,100 --> 00:53:01,100
{\an1}looks for positively
or negatively charged molecules

1156
00:53:01,133 --> 00:53:04,466
{\an1}called ions in the residue,

1157
00:53:04,500 --> 00:53:06,533
{\an1}fragments of the original
chemical explosive.

1158
00:53:06,566 --> 00:53:08,400
{\an1}Well, there appears to be
a spike right here

1159
00:53:08,433 --> 00:53:09,466
{\an1}at number three.

1160
00:53:09,500 --> 00:53:10,400
There sure does.

1161
00:53:10,433 --> 00:53:13,400
{\an7}What use is this analysis?

1162
00:53:13,433 --> 00:53:15,600
{\an7}Can you tell
the State Department

1163
00:53:15,633 --> 00:53:16,833
{\an7}where the bomb came from?

1164
00:53:16,866 --> 00:53:18,233
I can.

1165
00:53:18,266 --> 00:53:19,333
{\an1}Really?

1166
00:53:19,366 --> 00:53:20,233
{\an1}And have you?

1167
00:53:20,266 --> 00:53:21,966
{\an1}Do they bring you...?

1168
00:53:22,000 --> 00:53:23,033
I can't talk about that.

1169
00:53:23,066 --> 00:53:24,066
{\an1}You can just say
yes or no.

1170
00:53:24,100 --> 00:53:25,200
{\an1}You can wink.

1171
00:53:25,233 --> 00:53:27,033
No, I can't.

1172
00:53:27,066 --> 00:53:29,533
POGUE:
Different elements
show up as spikes

1173
00:53:29,566 --> 00:53:31,833
{\an1}in different locations
on the graph.

1174
00:53:31,866 --> 00:53:34,633
{\an1}Christa tells me this spike
indicates that oxygen

1175
00:53:34,666 --> 00:53:39,400
{\an1}is at work here, contained
in molecules called nitrates.

1176
00:53:39,433 --> 00:53:42,100
Nitrates consist
of three oxygen atoms

1177
00:53:42,133 --> 00:53:44,833
{\an1}bound to a central
nitrogen atom.

1178
00:53:44,866 --> 00:53:46,366
{\an1}To set off the bomb,

1179
00:53:46,400 --> 00:53:49,833
{\an1}an initial spark of heat
breaks those bonds.

1180
00:53:49,866 --> 00:53:53,300
{\an1}Once set free, oxygen rushes
away from the nitrogen

1181
00:53:53,333 --> 00:53:55,700
{\an1}to combine with the elements
it prefers--

1182
00:53:55,733 --> 00:53:59,200
{\an1}carbon, hydrogen,
and even other oxygen atoms--

1183
00:53:59,233 --> 00:54:02,400
{\an1}leaving the nitrogen to pair up
with each other.

1184
00:54:02,433 --> 00:54:04,700
{\an1}Every time atoms form
a new bond,

1185
00:54:04,733 --> 00:54:06,900
{\an1}the reaction releases energy.

1186
00:54:06,933 --> 00:54:10,100
{\an1}And that's what powers
the explosion.

1187
00:54:14,200 --> 00:54:17,833
{\an1}But, in fact, we see similar
oxygen reactions every day.

1188
00:54:17,866 --> 00:54:19,933
{\an1}Like ordinary fire.

1189
00:54:19,966 --> 00:54:22,200
{\an1}The heat of this flame
is generated

1190
00:54:22,233 --> 00:54:27,500
{\an1}when carbon atoms in the wick
bond with oxygen in the air.

1191
00:54:27,533 --> 00:54:33,200
{\an1}Or rust, a very slow reaction
when iron and oxygen combine.

1192
00:54:33,233 --> 00:54:37,933
{\an1}Oxygen makes engines rev,
rockets roar.

1193
00:54:37,966 --> 00:54:40,066
{\an1}And in exactly the same way,

1194
00:54:40,100 --> 00:54:42,866
oxygen reacts
with the food we eat,

1195
00:54:42,900 --> 00:54:46,800
releasing energy
like countless tiny fires

1196
00:54:46,833 --> 00:54:50,700
{\an1}burning in our cells,
keeping us alive.

1197
00:54:50,733 --> 00:54:53,166
{\an1}All of these combustion
reactions

1198
00:54:53,200 --> 00:54:55,133
{\an1}are essentially the same.

1199
00:54:55,166 --> 00:54:57,633
{\an1}The only difference is speed.

1200
00:54:57,666 --> 00:55:03,100
{\an1}So how do you speed up a fire
to create an explosion?

1201
00:55:03,133 --> 00:55:05,100
You regulate
the amount of oxygen

1202
00:55:05,133 --> 00:55:08,833
{\an1}and how closely it's packed
together with other elements.

1203
00:55:08,866 --> 00:55:12,733
{\an1}As a final demonstration,
Christa wants to show me

1204
00:55:12,766 --> 00:55:16,200
{\an1}how chemists have learned to
control the speed of combustion.

1205
00:55:16,233 --> 00:55:19,233
{\an1}She has arranged the use
of a high-speed camera

1206
00:55:19,266 --> 00:55:22,566
{\an1}to record several different
types of explosives.

1207
00:55:22,600 --> 00:55:24,233
We take cover.

1208
00:55:24,266 --> 00:55:25,300
Bunker.

1209
00:55:25,333 --> 00:55:26,533
Bunker.

1210
00:55:31,866 --> 00:55:36,366
POGUE:
The first demonstration
will be ordinary gunpowder.

1211
00:55:36,400 --> 00:55:38,100
{\an1}So pure gunpowder
is our first test here, right?

1212
00:55:38,133 --> 00:55:40,600
Yes, this is
a smokeless powder.

1213
00:55:40,633 --> 00:55:41,833
{\an1}Whoa!

1214
00:55:41,866 --> 00:55:43,900
{\an1}Nicely done!

1215
00:55:43,933 --> 00:55:48,700
{\an1}It was quick, but it wasn't
blisteringly quick.

1216
00:55:48,733 --> 00:55:50,833
POGUE:
The gunpowder contains
its own oxygen,

1217
00:55:50,866 --> 00:55:53,400
{\an1}but it's in a mixture
of powdered chemicals

1218
00:55:53,433 --> 00:55:57,533
{\an1}held far away from the carbon
it needs to bond with.

1219
00:55:57,566 --> 00:55:59,666
{\an1}But when they finally find
their partners,

1220
00:55:59,700 --> 00:56:03,766
{\an1}the new bonds they form
release lots of energy.

1221
00:56:03,800 --> 00:56:07,233
{\an1}Gunpowder is a relatively
slow explosive.

1222
00:56:07,266 --> 00:56:09,333
{\an1}That's why it's used in guns.

1223
00:56:09,366 --> 00:56:12,100
{\an1}It creates enough force
to fire a projectile,

1224
00:56:12,133 --> 00:56:16,266
but not enough
to damage the barrel.

1225
00:56:16,300 --> 00:56:17,900
{\an8}So you're saying there
must be explosives that...

1226
00:56:17,933 --> 00:56:19,466
{\an7}We're going to get faster
and faster.

1227
00:56:19,500 --> 00:56:23,200
POGUE:
Next is an emulsion
gel explosive.

1228
00:56:23,233 --> 00:56:25,600
{\an1}Its main ingredient
is ammonium nitrate,

1229
00:56:25,633 --> 00:56:28,300
the same stuff
that blew up the car.

1230
00:56:28,333 --> 00:56:30,500
{\an1}A lot more oxygen
and a lot of nitrogen

1231
00:56:30,533 --> 00:56:33,066
{\an1}packed very closely together
in a liquid.

1232
00:56:33,100 --> 00:56:34,966
{\an3}MAN:
Three... two... one.

1233
00:56:35,000 --> 00:56:36,200
(explosion)

1234
00:56:36,233 --> 00:56:38,000
POGUE:
Oh, jeez!

1235
00:56:38,033 --> 00:56:39,766
Man, I could feel
that puppy through here.

1236
00:56:39,800 --> 00:56:42,866
{\an1}This is a high explosive.

1237
00:56:42,900 --> 00:56:44,566
{\an1}It generates a shock wave

1238
00:56:44,600 --> 00:56:47,633
{\an1}that moves faster
than the speed of sound.

1239
00:56:47,666 --> 00:56:50,266
{\an1}In this explosive, oxygen,
hydrogen and nitrogen

1240
00:56:50,300 --> 00:56:51,833
{\an1}are so close together

1241
00:56:51,866 --> 00:56:54,100
{\an1}they lose no time
finding new partners

1242
00:56:54,133 --> 00:56:57,533
{\an1}and making new bonds
that release energy.

1243
00:56:57,566 --> 00:57:02,633
{\an1}The final demonstration
is one pound of C4--

1244
00:57:02,666 --> 00:57:05,333
{\an1}a military-grade high explosive

1245
00:57:05,366 --> 00:57:07,666
{\an1}which burns fast enough
to cut steel.

1246
00:57:07,700 --> 00:57:11,333
{\an3}MAN:
Five, four,
three, two, one.

1247
00:57:11,366 --> 00:57:12,333
(explosion)

1248
00:57:12,366 --> 00:57:13,566
POGUE:
Oh, jeez!

1249
00:57:13,600 --> 00:57:15,300
There's nothing to see.

1250
00:57:15,333 --> 00:57:19,000
{\an7}It was there, and it was gone!

1251
00:57:19,033 --> 00:57:22,866
{\an7}C4 assembles oxygen, nitrogen,
hydrogen and carbon

1252
00:57:22,900 --> 00:57:25,600
{\an1}in high concentration--
close together,

1253
00:57:25,633 --> 00:57:27,600
{\an1}all on a big molecule,

1254
00:57:27,633 --> 00:57:31,566
{\an1}so the speed of the reaction
is blisteringly fast.

1255
00:57:31,600 --> 00:57:35,100
{\an1}And that gives me an idea.

1256
00:57:35,133 --> 00:57:39,433
{\an1}Maybe C4 can help me exorcise
a personal demon.

1257
00:57:39,466 --> 00:57:40,466
What can I say?

1258
00:57:40,500 --> 00:57:41,866
I have issues.

1259
00:57:41,900 --> 00:57:42,933
{\an1}Quite frankly, Christa,

1260
00:57:42,966 --> 00:57:44,533
{\an1}I've been looking forward
to this one the most.

1261
00:57:44,566 --> 00:57:46,500
{\an1}I am with you 100%.

1262
00:57:46,533 --> 00:57:47,300
Clown...

1263
00:57:47,333 --> 00:57:48,566
{\an1}Let's do it to the clown.

1264
00:57:48,600 --> 00:57:50,166
Let's do it
to the clown!

1265
00:57:50,200 --> 00:57:51,700
{\an8}MAN:
Three, two, one.

1266
00:57:54,266 --> 00:57:55,666
(Pogue laughing)

1267
00:57:55,700 --> 00:57:56,900
Okay!

1268
00:57:56,933 --> 00:57:58,633
{\an1}Well, the world is minus one
clown

1269
00:57:58,666 --> 00:58:01,100
and I am out of therapy.

1270
00:58:05,333 --> 00:58:07,433
POGUE:
The oxygen that powers
all those explosions

1271
00:58:07,466 --> 00:58:10,666
{\an1}makes up 21% of our atmosphere.

1272
00:58:10,700 --> 00:58:14,166
{\an1}It's the most abundant element
in the earth's crust.

1273
00:58:14,200 --> 00:58:16,000
{\an1}It's also a big part of us.

1274
00:58:16,033 --> 00:58:18,166
{\an1}Which makes me wonder.

1275
00:58:18,200 --> 00:58:20,966
{\an1}What other elements
make life possible?

1276
00:58:21,000 --> 00:58:23,700
{\an1}What, for example, is in me?

1277
00:58:23,733 --> 00:58:26,100
{\an1}What's in a David?

1278
00:58:26,133 --> 00:58:30,700
{\an1}Amazingly, I'm mostly made
of just six elements:

1279
00:58:30,733 --> 00:58:32,866
{\an1}nonmetals, mainly
from a small neighborhood

1280
00:58:32,900 --> 00:58:35,066
{\an1}on the periodic table--

1281
00:58:35,100 --> 00:58:37,200
{\an1}carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,

1282
00:58:37,233 --> 00:58:40,700
{\an1}oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur.

1283
00:58:40,733 --> 00:58:45,466
{\an1}Or, as some prefer
to call them, CHNOPS.

1284
00:58:45,500 --> 00:58:49,333
{\an1}These are the elements that form
the basis of all living things,

1285
00:58:49,366 --> 00:58:51,800
{\an1}from the most primitive bacteria

1286
00:58:51,833 --> 00:58:54,233
{\an1}to the largest creatures
on earth.

1287
00:58:54,266 --> 00:58:56,566
{\an1}It seems incredible
that so much diversity

1288
00:58:56,600 --> 00:58:59,433
could spring
from such a tiny list.

1289
00:58:59,466 --> 00:59:04,000
{\an1}But what I don't get is,
why these six?

1290
00:59:04,033 --> 00:59:06,833
Why CHNOPS?

1291
00:59:06,866 --> 00:59:08,033
{\an1}Professor?

1292
00:59:08,066 --> 00:59:08,966
Yeah?

1293
00:59:09,000 --> 00:59:10,033
{\an1}Sorry, I'm late
for class.

1294
00:59:10,066 --> 00:59:12,500
POGUE:
Chemistry professor
Christine Thomas

1295
00:59:12,533 --> 00:59:14,633
{\an1}at Brandeis University

1296
00:59:14,666 --> 00:59:18,100
{\an1}has agreed to help me understand
what makes me tick.

1297
00:59:18,133 --> 00:59:21,800
{\an1}I was told that you can help me
understand C-H-N-O-P-S, CHNOPS.

1298
00:59:21,833 --> 00:59:22,933
{\an1}The elements of life.

1299
00:59:22,966 --> 00:59:24,400
CHNOPS?

1300
00:59:24,433 --> 00:59:26,633
POGUE:
Better than that, she's going
to show me the actual elements

1301
00:59:26,666 --> 00:59:29,866
{\an1}in the actual quantities
that are in me.

1302
00:59:29,900 --> 00:59:31,766
{\an1}But I don't get how.

1303
00:59:31,800 --> 00:59:34,766
I've prepared for you
a CHNOPPING list.

1304
00:59:34,800 --> 00:59:36,566
{\an1}A CHNOPPING list.
(laughs)

1305
00:59:36,600 --> 00:59:37,800
{\an1}You'll have to show me this.

1306
00:59:37,833 --> 00:59:40,333
POGUE:
Where do you go to find
the elements

1307
00:59:40,366 --> 00:59:43,200
{\an1}that make up a 185-pound man?

1308
00:59:43,233 --> 00:59:44,233
{\an1}Isn't it a little weird

1309
00:59:44,266 --> 00:59:46,500
{\an1}that we're shopping
for the elements of life

1310
00:59:46,533 --> 00:59:48,233
{\an1}at a hardware store?

1311
00:59:48,266 --> 00:59:49,900
Does seem a little
strange at first.

1312
00:59:49,933 --> 00:59:53,966
POGUE:
But in fact, they're all here
in these aisles

1313
00:59:54,000 --> 00:59:57,366
{\an1}starting with C-- carbon.

1314
00:59:57,400 --> 00:59:59,666
{\an1}All right, charcoal,
right over here.

1315
00:59:59,700 --> 01:00:01,733
POGUE:
Charcoal?

1316
01:00:01,766 --> 01:00:04,900
{\an1}I don't think of the human body
being made of charcoal.

1317
01:00:04,933 --> 01:00:07,633
{\an1}Oh, it's made of carbon,
and... you know, just trust me.

1318
01:00:07,666 --> 01:00:09,400
Hydrogen?

1319
01:00:09,433 --> 01:00:10,633
Yup, that's next.

1320
01:00:10,666 --> 01:00:13,500
We're going to get it
right here, in water.

1321
01:00:13,533 --> 01:00:16,233
{\an1}In fact, we're going to get
both hydrogen and oxygen

1322
01:00:16,266 --> 01:00:17,466
all in one place.

1323
01:00:17,500 --> 01:00:20,400
{\an1}So next on the list
is nitrogen.

1324
01:00:20,433 --> 01:00:21,566
This is fertilizer.

1325
01:00:21,600 --> 01:00:23,233
{\an1}It is, and fertilizer,
as it turns out,

1326
01:00:23,266 --> 01:00:25,700
{\an1}has a lot of nitrogen in it,
just like you.

1327
01:00:25,733 --> 01:00:28,000
I've been told I'm
full of... never mind.

1328
01:00:28,033 --> 01:00:30,400
POGUE:
Next is phosphorus.

1329
01:00:30,433 --> 01:00:32,300
{\an1}I'm not seeing phosphorus.

1330
01:00:32,333 --> 01:00:34,200
{\an1}There's in fact phosphorus
in these matches.

1331
01:00:34,233 --> 01:00:35,533
{\an1}You're probably going to need

1332
01:00:35,566 --> 01:00:37,800
{\an1}probably all of the matches
that they have here.

1333
01:00:39,866 --> 01:00:40,866
{\an1}There you go!

1334
01:00:40,900 --> 01:00:43,633
{\an1}Oh, that ought to do.

1335
01:00:47,600 --> 01:00:48,666
Hi there.

1336
01:00:48,700 --> 01:00:50,166
How are you?

1337
01:00:50,200 --> 01:00:51,900
{\an1}Just a couple things.

1338
01:00:51,933 --> 01:00:54,066
{\an1}We're having a couple people
over for grill.

1339
01:01:00,566 --> 01:01:03,366
168 bucks?!

1340
01:01:03,400 --> 01:01:06,866
{\an1}All the vital elements in this
magnificent body, 168 bucks?

1341
01:01:06,900 --> 01:01:08,166
{\an1}Yup, that's it.

1342
01:01:12,533 --> 01:01:16,133
POGUE:
So you're telling me that
our hardware store haul here

1343
01:01:16,166 --> 01:01:17,800
{\an1}actually is representative

1344
01:01:17,833 --> 01:01:20,066
{\an1}of the CHNOPS elements
in all life?

1345
01:01:20,100 --> 01:01:21,733
{\an1}And roughly in the right
proportions?

1346
01:01:21,766 --> 01:01:24,166
POGUE:
Christine tells me
we did pretty well,

1347
01:01:24,200 --> 01:01:26,100
{\an1}but we didn't quite nail it.

1348
01:01:26,133 --> 01:01:29,100
{\an1}We're still missing most
of the phosphorus we need.

1349
01:01:29,133 --> 01:01:31,666
{\an1}Luckily, she knows
where to get some,

1350
01:01:31,700 --> 01:01:35,466
{\an1}thanks to a discovery
by a 17th-century alchemist

1351
01:01:35,500 --> 01:01:38,100
{\an1}named Hennig Brandt.

1352
01:01:38,133 --> 01:01:40,466
{\an1}Brandt was looking
for precious gold

1353
01:01:40,500 --> 01:01:43,333
{\an1}and he thought he might find it
in a bodily fluid

1354
01:01:43,366 --> 01:01:45,866
{\an1}that looks golden indeed.

1355
01:01:45,900 --> 01:01:46,666
All right.

1356
01:01:46,700 --> 01:01:48,566
{\an1}So we gotta get some...
some urine

1357
01:01:48,600 --> 01:01:50,966
{\an1}and we can, we can get
phosphorus from it.

1358
01:01:51,000 --> 01:01:53,100
{\an1}Actually, you're going
to provide a urine sample

1359
01:01:53,133 --> 01:01:54,300
for us to study.

1360
01:01:54,333 --> 01:01:57,133
POGUE:
Okay, anything for science.

1361
01:02:06,766 --> 01:02:10,333
{\an1}Turns out the amount
of phosphorus

1362
01:02:10,366 --> 01:02:12,200
{\an1}in my sample is microscopic.

1363
01:02:12,233 --> 01:02:17,566
{\an1}We're going to need a lot more,
so back to the stable.

1364
01:02:17,600 --> 01:02:18,666
(horse whinnies)

1365
01:02:20,333 --> 01:02:22,000
(sloshing)

1366
01:02:55,033 --> 01:02:58,433
{\an1}Centuries ago, Hennig Brandt
had to collect gallons of urine

1367
01:02:58,466 --> 01:02:59,766
{\an1}for his experiment.

1368
01:03:02,966 --> 01:03:04,600
(stream flowing)

1369
01:03:20,433 --> 01:03:21,533
Wow.

1370
01:03:21,566 --> 01:03:23,266
I didn't think
you had it in you.

1371
01:03:23,300 --> 01:03:24,333
{\an1}Very funny.

1372
01:03:24,366 --> 01:03:25,900
{\an1}It was a lot of work, frankly.

1373
01:03:25,933 --> 01:03:29,433
POGUE:
The next step requires
a concentrated sludge,

1374
01:03:29,466 --> 01:03:31,733
which is urine
minus most of the water.

1375
01:03:31,766 --> 01:03:35,366
{\an1}Brandt's early process
caused the phosphorus

1376
01:03:35,400 --> 01:03:37,100
{\an1}to rise as a vapor,

1377
01:03:37,133 --> 01:03:39,400
{\an1}which Christine directs
safely into water

1378
01:03:39,433 --> 01:03:43,433
{\an1}because phosphorus is
dangerously reactive in the air.

1379
01:03:43,466 --> 01:03:44,566
{\an1}While that's underway,

1380
01:03:44,600 --> 01:03:47,066
{\an1}it's time to get the lowdown
on the stuff we bought.

1381
01:03:47,100 --> 01:03:48,333
Starting with...

1382
01:03:48,366 --> 01:03:49,966
Carbon.

1383
01:03:50,000 --> 01:03:53,666
{\an1}Six protons, six electrons
in two shells.

1384
01:03:53,700 --> 01:03:57,533
{\an1}Its pure forms include graphite,
diamond, buckyballs,

1385
01:03:57,566 --> 01:04:00,933
{\an1}nanotubes and graphene.

1386
01:04:00,966 --> 01:04:02,233
{\an1}You mean charcoal?

1387
01:04:02,266 --> 01:04:04,133
Well, we bought charcoal
to represent carbon

1388
01:04:04,166 --> 01:04:06,333
because it's made up
of mostly carbon.

1389
01:04:06,366 --> 01:04:09,300
{\an1}Carbon in its elemental form
looks like this graphite here,

1390
01:04:09,333 --> 01:04:10,633
{\an1}like you'd find on the inside
of a pencil.

1391
01:04:10,666 --> 01:04:13,566
{\an1}What charcoal is mostly is just
leftover, say, burnt wood.

1392
01:04:13,600 --> 01:04:17,666
When wood burns,
what's eventually left over

1393
01:04:17,700 --> 01:04:22,466
looks an awful lot like
this charcoal, or this carbon.

1394
01:04:22,500 --> 01:04:25,333
POGUE:
And the stuff in charcoal
happens to be the foundation

1395
01:04:25,366 --> 01:04:27,766
{\an1}of all life on Earth.

1396
01:04:27,800 --> 01:04:29,733
{\an1}And for good reason.

1397
01:04:29,766 --> 01:04:31,133
{\an7}Carbon is the backbone
of living things

1398
01:04:31,166 --> 01:04:32,900
{\an7}because since it can bond
to itself,

1399
01:04:32,933 --> 01:04:35,033
{\an7}it can form these long chains
of molecules.

1400
01:04:35,066 --> 01:04:38,433
POGUE:
Long chains can form
because every carbon atom

1401
01:04:38,466 --> 01:04:41,366
{\an1}needs four electrons
to fill its outer shell,

1402
01:04:41,400 --> 01:04:44,833
{\an1}which means it's eager to bond
with up to four others,

1403
01:04:44,866 --> 01:04:47,266
{\an1}even carbon atoms.

1404
01:04:47,300 --> 01:04:49,933
{\an1}Virtually all long molecules
in the body

1405
01:04:49,966 --> 01:04:53,000
{\an1}are built around carbon.

1406
01:04:53,033 --> 01:04:54,800
{\an1}Your body's about 18% carbon,

1407
01:04:54,833 --> 01:04:57,200
which for you
would be 33.3 pounds.

1408
01:04:57,233 --> 01:04:58,633
Which is equivalent to

1409
01:04:58,666 --> 01:05:00,133
{\an1}about two-and-a-half bags
of charcoal here.

1410
01:05:00,166 --> 01:05:01,433
{\an1}All right, so next
we have nitrogen.

1411
01:05:01,466 --> 01:05:03,400
We do.

1412
01:05:03,433 --> 01:05:05,000
{\an1}For this you bought
fertilizer.

1413
01:05:05,033 --> 01:05:06,700
Right, so fertilizer
is made up

1414
01:05:06,733 --> 01:05:08,366
of a very large
percentage of nitrogen

1415
01:05:08,400 --> 01:05:11,166
because plants actually
use nitrogen as food.

1416
01:05:11,200 --> 01:05:14,066
{\an1}So how much actual nitrogen
is in a guy like me?

1417
01:05:14,100 --> 01:05:16,266
So your body's about
three percent nitrogen,

1418
01:05:16,300 --> 01:05:18,833
so in your case
that's 5.6 pounds.

1419
01:05:18,866 --> 01:05:20,766
{\an1}Okay, hydrogen and oxygen.

1420
01:05:20,800 --> 01:05:23,833
{\an1}You have these tiles
stacked side by side.

1421
01:05:23,866 --> 01:05:26,000
{\an1}Hydrogen and oxygen.

1422
01:05:26,033 --> 01:05:27,166
{\an1}H2O in water.

1423
01:05:27,200 --> 01:05:28,333
{\an1}A twofer!

1424
01:05:28,366 --> 01:05:32,233
{\an1}Hydrogen and oxygen can actually
be separated from water

1425
01:05:32,266 --> 01:05:33,600
using a little bit
of electricity.

1426
01:05:33,633 --> 01:05:36,466
POGUE:
Electric current breaks up
the water molecule.

1427
01:05:36,500 --> 01:05:39,800
{\an1}The result is these tiny bubbles
of hydrogen gas.

1428
01:05:39,833 --> 01:05:42,800
{\an1}Turns out they're really
quite volatile.

1429
01:05:42,833 --> 01:05:43,566
Ooh!

1430
01:05:43,600 --> 01:05:44,633
(laughs)

1431
01:05:44,666 --> 01:05:46,733
POGUE:
What the electric current
accomplished

1432
01:05:46,766 --> 01:05:49,700
{\an1}by separating water
into hydrogen and oxygen

1433
01:05:49,733 --> 01:05:52,733
a simple flame
put back together again.

1434
01:05:52,766 --> 01:05:55,600
THOMAS:
Now notice what you see on here,
it's a little cloudy, right?

1435
01:05:55,633 --> 01:05:59,233
POGUE:
That little foggy spot on the
test tube is brand new water

1436
01:05:59,266 --> 01:06:03,733
{\an1}made just now by burning
hydrogen and oxygen.

1437
01:06:03,766 --> 01:06:07,400
{\an1}Hydrogen is the lightest atom
in the universe.

1438
01:06:07,433 --> 01:06:09,800
{\an1}So even though there are more
hydrogen atoms in me

1439
01:06:09,833 --> 01:06:14,066
{\an1}than any other kind, it adds up
to only about 18 pounds.

1440
01:06:14,100 --> 01:06:16,966
{\an1}Next, oxygen, also in water.

1441
01:06:17,000 --> 01:06:21,466
{\an1}Of course, I know how much fire
likes pure oxygen.

1442
01:06:21,500 --> 01:06:26,133
{\an1}So why don't you go ahead and
light this twig here on fire.

1443
01:06:26,166 --> 01:06:29,700
{\an1}When you see it starting to
glow, go ahead and blow it out.

1444
01:06:32,933 --> 01:06:34,066
{\an1}Whoa!

1445
01:06:34,100 --> 01:06:37,300
{\an1}You have created fire!

1446
01:06:37,333 --> 01:06:40,600
{\an1}Okay, so how much oxygen
is in me?

1447
01:06:40,633 --> 01:06:43,500
In a person's body,
there's 65% oxygen.

1448
01:06:43,533 --> 01:06:46,100
{\an1}Actually, in your body
would equate to 120 pounds.

1449
01:06:46,133 --> 01:06:47,233
{\an1}That makes it sound like

1450
01:06:47,266 --> 01:06:49,800
{\an1}I'm a Macy's Thanksgiving
balloon or something.

1451
01:06:49,833 --> 01:06:51,800
POGUE:
But as Christine
has already demonstrated,

1452
01:06:51,833 --> 01:06:55,866
{\an1}it's not in me as a gas,
it's in all that water.

1453
01:06:55,900 --> 01:06:58,066
{\an1}And this brings us to P.

1454
01:06:58,100 --> 01:07:00,333
{\an1}I mean, of course,
P as in phosphorus.

1455
01:07:00,366 --> 01:07:05,233
POGUE:
Hot phosphorus vapor when cooled
in water turns into a solid.

1456
01:07:05,266 --> 01:07:06,533
THOMAS:
Yes.

1457
01:07:06,566 --> 01:07:09,333
{\an1}We've actually condensed it here
as a nice chunky, white solid.

1458
01:07:09,366 --> 01:07:11,233
Phosphorus is
actually involved

1459
01:07:11,266 --> 01:07:13,366
in something really
important called ATP,

1460
01:07:13,400 --> 01:07:16,433
{\an1}which is the molecule that
all cells use for energy.

1461
01:07:16,466 --> 01:07:19,200
POGUE:
Altogether, phosphorus
makes up about one percent

1462
01:07:19,233 --> 01:07:21,666
{\an1}of my six-foot-two-inch body.

1463
01:07:21,700 --> 01:07:24,300
Phosphorus was
the first element isolated

1464
01:07:24,333 --> 01:07:25,733
{\an1}from a living creature.

1465
01:07:25,766 --> 01:07:28,533
{\an1}And it must have surprised
Brandt.

1466
01:07:28,566 --> 01:07:30,800
{\an1}Exposed to air, it glows,

1467
01:07:30,833 --> 01:07:34,666
{\an1}creating what he described
as "cold fire."

1468
01:07:34,700 --> 01:07:39,733
{\an1}This chemical glow is what we
mean today by phosphorescence.

1469
01:07:39,766 --> 01:07:41,666
{\an1}And when burned in oxygen,

1470
01:07:41,700 --> 01:07:44,233
{\an1}it generates a spectacular
pulsing display

1471
01:07:44,266 --> 01:07:47,033
{\an1}called a phosphorus sun.

1472
01:07:47,066 --> 01:07:50,366
{\an1}No wonder it's used to provide
energy in our bodies.

1473
01:07:50,400 --> 01:07:52,866
And to think
where it came from.

1474
01:07:52,900 --> 01:07:54,433
(horse whinnies)

1475
01:07:54,466 --> 01:07:57,700
{\an1}There's just one thing left
on our CHNOPPING list: sulfur.

1476
01:07:57,733 --> 01:07:58,866
{\an1}POGUE:
I don't get it.

1477
01:07:58,900 --> 01:08:00,633
{\an1}What does a tire
have to do with sulfur?

1478
01:08:00,666 --> 01:08:02,933
{\an1}So there's a very small fraction
of sulfur in this tire,

1479
01:08:02,966 --> 01:08:04,066
and as it turns out,

1480
01:08:04,100 --> 01:08:06,266
{\an1}there's the same amount
of sulfur in this one tire

1481
01:08:06,300 --> 01:08:08,866
as there is
in a 185-pound David.

1482
01:08:08,900 --> 01:08:10,033
{\an1}Which is about how much?

1483
01:08:10,066 --> 01:08:11,666
{\an1}Which is about half a pound.

1484
01:08:11,700 --> 01:08:15,566
POGUE:
Altogether, just those six
CHNOPS elements

1485
01:08:15,600 --> 01:08:18,766
make up 97%
of the weight of my body.

1486
01:08:18,800 --> 01:08:21,233
But what about
the other three percent?

1487
01:08:21,266 --> 01:08:23,933
{\an1}And so whatever is left over
in those different beings

1488
01:08:23,966 --> 01:08:26,533
{\an1}must be what differentiates
one from the next.

1489
01:08:26,566 --> 01:08:28,633
{\an1}Right, there's what's called
the trace elements.

1490
01:08:28,666 --> 01:08:31,100
{\an1}And the person that would be
better to talk to about those

1491
01:08:31,133 --> 01:08:32,633
might be someone
that's interested

1492
01:08:32,666 --> 01:08:35,433
{\an1}in maybe sports medicine
or professional athletes.

1493
01:08:35,466 --> 01:08:37,800
{\an1}Let's see,
who could tell us

1494
01:08:37,833 --> 01:08:41,166
{\an1}about sports,
athletes and elements?

1495
01:08:41,200 --> 01:08:43,266
{\an1}Who could tell us?

1496
01:08:44,733 --> 01:08:46,733
POGUE:
Hey, are you Lindsay?

1497
01:08:46,766 --> 01:08:47,633
{\an1}Yeah, I'm Lindsay.

1498
01:08:47,666 --> 01:08:48,466
David.

1499
01:08:48,500 --> 01:08:49,500
{\an1}Nice to meet you, David.

1500
01:08:49,533 --> 01:08:51,066
{\an1}Welcome to the Gatorade
Sports Science Institute.

1501
01:08:51,100 --> 01:08:52,633
Gatorade Sports
Science Institute.

1502
01:08:52,666 --> 01:08:55,166
{\an1}I know you guys are involved
with elements in the body

1503
01:08:55,200 --> 01:08:57,033
and athlete performance.

1504
01:08:57,066 --> 01:09:00,500
{\an1}I actually am very concerned
with these things too.

1505
01:09:00,533 --> 01:09:02,766
In fact, every morning,
I take supplements.

1506
01:09:02,800 --> 01:09:04,900
I use organic elements,

1507
01:09:04,933 --> 01:09:06,900
I make my own.

1508
01:09:06,933 --> 01:09:09,400
{\an1}Um, calcium, very important.

1509
01:09:09,433 --> 01:09:10,766
Sometimes I...

1510
01:09:13,200 --> 01:09:15,100
{\an1}Sometimes I'll mix it up,
get a little chalk.

1511
01:09:15,133 --> 01:09:17,033
It might look
like soap to you,

1512
01:09:17,066 --> 01:09:19,666
{\an1}but it's a fine source
of potassium.

1513
01:09:21,600 --> 01:09:22,500
Iron,

1514
01:09:22,533 --> 01:09:24,866
zinc,

1515
01:09:24,900 --> 01:09:27,066
magnesium...

1516
01:09:27,100 --> 01:09:29,833
{\an1}I like to think of this as
an excellent source of sodium.

1517
01:09:31,666 --> 01:09:32,866
{\an1}And this is it every morning.

1518
01:09:32,900 --> 01:09:34,933
You know, it doesn't
taste fantastic,

1519
01:09:34,966 --> 01:09:37,233
{\an1}but wow, is it good for me!

1520
01:09:39,566 --> 01:09:41,400
{\an1}Am I going about this
the right way?

1521
01:09:41,433 --> 01:09:44,166
{\an1}Actually, David,
there's a better way
to get your elements,

1522
01:09:44,200 --> 01:09:46,300
{\an7}such as calcium, iron,
magnesium,

1523
01:09:46,333 --> 01:09:48,333
{\an7}in your daily food intake.

1524
01:09:48,366 --> 01:09:51,833
But this is organic
free-range!

1525
01:09:51,866 --> 01:09:55,533
POGUE:
I'm curious to know how my body
uses those trace elements.

1526
01:09:55,566 --> 01:09:57,200
{\an1}But first, a battery of tests

1527
01:09:57,233 --> 01:10:01,000
{\an1}to determine what kind
of shape I'm in.

1528
01:10:01,033 --> 01:10:02,266
{\an1}Once I've been poked...

1529
01:10:02,300 --> 01:10:04,433
{\an1}Go ahead and take all
of your clothes off.

1530
01:10:04,466 --> 01:10:05,166
Okay.

1531
01:10:05,200 --> 01:10:06,033
POGUE:
...weighed...

1532
01:10:06,066 --> 01:10:07,600
{\an1}David, I said
all your clothes.

1533
01:10:09,533 --> 01:10:10,566
POGUE:
...measured...

1534
01:10:10,600 --> 01:10:12,566
and scanned--

1535
01:10:12,600 --> 01:10:14,366
and by the way,
in the real world,

1536
01:10:14,400 --> 01:10:16,133
{\an1}this costs some serious money--

1537
01:10:16,166 --> 01:10:20,733
{\an1}she puts me on a treadmill
to measure my oxygen use,

1538
01:10:20,766 --> 01:10:23,633
{\an1}which could be impaired
if I have an iron deficiency.

1539
01:10:23,666 --> 01:10:24,633
Okay, and start.

1540
01:10:24,666 --> 01:10:27,733
{\an1}We'll get to a nice comfy
walking pace.

1541
01:10:27,766 --> 01:10:30,200
15 seconds, we're going
to increase the speed.

1542
01:10:30,233 --> 01:10:34,633
Okay, David, what's your
rating of perceived exertion?

1543
01:10:37,966 --> 01:10:39,933
Keep pushing.

1544
01:10:39,966 --> 01:10:41,733
Okay, David, how do you
feel at this stage?

1545
01:10:42,400 --> 01:10:43,566
{\an3}15?

1546
01:10:43,600 --> 01:10:44,700
Where you at now?

1547
01:10:44,733 --> 01:10:47,000
He's at an 18, okay.

1548
01:10:47,033 --> 01:10:49,233
Ten more seconds,
hard as you can.

1549
01:10:49,266 --> 01:10:50,266
You can do it.

1550
01:10:50,300 --> 01:10:51,433
Got any more left?

1551
01:10:51,466 --> 01:10:53,300
Okay, okay,
go ahead and stretch,

1552
01:10:53,333 --> 01:10:54,700
go ahead and grab
onto the railing.

1553
01:10:56,600 --> 01:10:58,466
That's good,
that's good.

1554
01:10:58,500 --> 01:11:00,600
POGUE:
Next, a sweat test.

1555
01:11:00,633 --> 01:11:01,766
Okay.

1556
01:11:07,833 --> 01:11:08,700
{\an1}All the way down, good.
All the way down, good.

1557
01:11:08,733 --> 01:11:10,733
{\an1}Lock out at the top.

1558
01:11:10,766 --> 01:11:13,266
This is how OSHA
violations happen.

1559
01:11:13,300 --> 01:11:15,966
{\an1}You know, if you play
this video in opposite way,

1560
01:11:16,000 --> 01:11:18,066
{\an1}it will look like
I'm really running.

1561
01:11:18,100 --> 01:11:19,333
{\an1}Thank you, sir.

1562
01:11:19,366 --> 01:11:20,100
{\an1}It's been a pleasure.

1563
01:11:20,133 --> 01:11:21,400
{\an1}Go train somebody else.

1564
01:11:21,433 --> 01:11:22,733
{\an1}We're just getting
warmed up.

1565
01:11:22,766 --> 01:11:24,533
{\an1}(laughs)

1566
01:11:24,566 --> 01:11:26,433
POGUE:
Unfortunately,
he wasn't joking.

1567
01:11:26,466 --> 01:11:28,700
{\an1}Now they're ready to start
the actual test.

1568
01:11:28,733 --> 01:11:30,866
These patches
will collect my sweat,

1569
01:11:30,900 --> 01:11:33,166
{\an1}which in turn will tell Lindsay

1570
01:11:33,200 --> 01:11:37,133
{\an1}how much of the trace elements
I'm losing from my body.

1571
01:11:37,166 --> 01:11:38,700
{\an1}I feel like an old tire.

1572
01:11:38,733 --> 01:11:39,833
{\an1}Here we go,
ready, go!

1573
01:11:39,866 --> 01:11:41,633
{\an1}Shouldn't you have a mower
attachment, at least?

1574
01:11:41,666 --> 01:11:43,666
Come on, drive it,
let's go.

1575
01:11:43,700 --> 01:11:44,700
Come on,
stay lower.

1576
01:11:44,733 --> 01:11:45,900
Use your butt,
use your gluts.

1577
01:11:45,933 --> 01:11:49,033
{\an1}Finish it, finish it!

1578
01:11:49,066 --> 01:11:50,733
{\an1}All the way down,
all the way up.

1579
01:11:50,766 --> 01:11:52,200
Like that?

1580
01:11:52,233 --> 01:11:53,566
{\an1}There you go.

1581
01:11:53,600 --> 01:11:54,833
{\an1}A little higher, a little
higher, let's go.

1582
01:11:54,866 --> 01:11:56,133
{\an1}I'm going to start calling you
names in a minute.

1583
01:11:56,166 --> 01:11:57,300
{\an1}Let's go.

1584
01:11:57,333 --> 01:11:58,366
Oh my God.

1585
01:11:58,400 --> 01:11:59,800
{\an1}Keep going, keep going...
that was two.

1586
01:11:59,833 --> 01:12:01,033
Third-grade girls
can get ten.

1587
01:12:01,066 --> 01:12:01,833
(laughs)

1588
01:12:01,866 --> 01:12:02,866
Let's go, keep going.

1589
01:12:05,166 --> 01:12:06,633
Excellent job.

1590
01:12:06,666 --> 01:12:07,666
Yeah, great job.

1591
01:12:07,700 --> 01:12:08,766
{\an1}I have sweaty pads.

1592
01:12:08,800 --> 01:12:09,633
That's right.

1593
01:12:09,666 --> 01:12:11,033
{\an1}Come and get 'em!

1594
01:12:11,066 --> 01:12:14,433
POGUE:
So the purpose of all this
was to measure

1595
01:12:14,466 --> 01:12:15,866
{\an1}what electrolytes
and salts and stuff

1596
01:12:15,900 --> 01:12:17,433
{\an1}were leaking out of my sweat,
right?

1597
01:12:17,466 --> 01:12:19,733
And why exactly
do we care?

1598
01:12:19,766 --> 01:12:22,033
Why do you care in the
athletes you train here?

1599
01:12:22,066 --> 01:12:25,400
{\an7}What we want to prevent
is athletes cramping,

1600
01:12:25,433 --> 01:12:26,666
{\an7}affecting their performance,

1601
01:12:26,700 --> 01:12:28,366
{\an7}not only in practices
but also in games.

1602
01:12:28,400 --> 01:12:30,900
So you could be properly
hydrated and still get cramps.

1603
01:12:30,933 --> 01:12:31,733
{\an1}Correct.

1604
01:12:31,766 --> 01:12:32,933
Well, thanks
for the education

1605
01:12:32,966 --> 01:12:34,166
and thanks
for the workout, Coach.

1606
01:12:34,200 --> 01:12:35,233
{\an1}You got it,
anytime, Dave.

1607
01:12:35,266 --> 01:12:37,700
POGUE:
And now for the results.

1608
01:12:37,733 --> 01:12:41,133
{\an1}My bone density test: normal.

1609
01:12:41,166 --> 01:12:42,300
{\an1}Plenty of calcium in me.

1610
01:12:42,333 --> 01:12:43,866
{\an1}BAKER:
So you have nice,
strong bones.

1611
01:12:43,900 --> 01:12:48,300
{\an1}So that means that my morning
ritual of consuming calcium

1612
01:12:48,333 --> 01:12:50,000
{\an1}seems to be working.

1613
01:12:50,033 --> 01:12:53,233
It is working, however,
I would suggest dairy products

1614
01:12:53,266 --> 01:12:55,633
to get your calcium
instead of seashells.

1615
01:12:55,666 --> 01:12:59,400
POGUE:
The treadmill: not so good.

1616
01:12:59,433 --> 01:13:01,900
For your age
and compared to other males,

1617
01:13:01,933 --> 01:13:04,300
you're in about
the 30th percentile.

1618
01:13:04,333 --> 01:13:05,466
{\an1}That's low.

1619
01:13:05,500 --> 01:13:06,466
It's low.

1620
01:13:06,500 --> 01:13:07,500
It's below average.

1621
01:13:07,533 --> 01:13:09,666
POGUE:
This could mean
one of two things.

1622
01:13:09,700 --> 01:13:11,933
{\an1}Either I might have
an iron deficiency--

1623
01:13:11,966 --> 01:13:14,666
{\an1}so my blood isn't carrying
enough oxygen--

1624
01:13:14,700 --> 01:13:16,833
{\an1}or I'm really out of shape.

1625
01:13:16,866 --> 01:13:22,100
{\an1}And my blood test showed
I'm not iron deficient, so...

1626
01:13:22,133 --> 01:13:23,366
Well, what about
the other elements?

1627
01:13:23,400 --> 01:13:24,233
What do they do?

1628
01:13:24,266 --> 01:13:25,466
Zinc?

1629
01:13:25,500 --> 01:13:28,333
{\an1}Zinc is important
for energy metabolism.

1630
01:13:28,366 --> 01:13:29,500
{\an1}Potassium?

1631
01:13:29,533 --> 01:13:30,766
{\an1}Potassium is an important part

1632
01:13:30,800 --> 01:13:32,800
{\an1}of nervous system function.

1633
01:13:32,833 --> 01:13:34,266
Magnesium?

1634
01:13:34,300 --> 01:13:35,866
Energy metabolism.
Okay.

1635
01:13:35,900 --> 01:13:38,933
And finally,
what about sodium?

1636
01:13:38,966 --> 01:13:41,766
{\an1}So sodium is important
for nervous system function.

1637
01:13:41,800 --> 01:13:43,333
{\an1}That's why we did that test
on you today.

1638
01:13:43,366 --> 01:13:46,300
POGUE:
Luckily, my test results
were normal.

1639
01:13:46,333 --> 01:13:49,433
{\an1}I may have been sweating a lot
out on that field,

1640
01:13:49,466 --> 01:13:52,566
{\an1}but I sweat like a champ.

1641
01:13:52,600 --> 01:13:56,166
{\an1}In total, the human body uses
more than 25 elements

1642
01:13:56,200 --> 01:13:59,566
{\an1}in ways and quantities
that are unique to us.

1643
01:13:59,600 --> 01:14:02,333
{\an1}Not every living thing
does it the same way.

1644
01:14:02,366 --> 01:14:04,133
Take oxygen.

1645
01:14:04,166 --> 01:14:06,500
{\an1}We love the stuff,
can't live without it.

1646
01:14:06,533 --> 01:14:08,733
{\an1}But it wasn't always this way.

1647
01:14:08,766 --> 01:14:12,466
{\an1}When life began, conditions
were very different on earth.

1648
01:14:12,500 --> 01:14:15,666
To begin with,
there was no oxygen in the air.

1649
01:14:15,700 --> 01:14:19,866
{\an1}To learn what put
the "O" in our at-MO-sphere,

1650
01:14:19,900 --> 01:14:22,633
I've traveled
to Yellowstone National Park.

1651
01:14:22,666 --> 01:14:25,600
{\an1}David Ward has spent
his professional life

1652
01:14:25,633 --> 01:14:29,000
{\an1}studying the earth's
most ancient organisms.

1653
01:14:29,033 --> 01:14:30,733
So, Dave, you're
a microbe expert, I hear.

1654
01:14:30,766 --> 01:14:31,900
{\an1}I am.

1655
01:14:31,933 --> 01:14:33,400
{\an1}I am a microbial biologist.

1656
01:14:33,433 --> 01:14:35,200
{\an1}I study microorganisms.

1657
01:14:35,233 --> 01:14:39,333
{\an1}And, uh, I'm particularly
interested in how they evolved.

1658
01:14:39,366 --> 01:14:41,000
{\an1}Well, when you say
the earliest ones,

1659
01:14:41,033 --> 01:14:42,366
how old are we
talking about?

1660
01:14:42,400 --> 01:14:44,800
{\an1}We're talking three,
four billion years ago.

1661
01:14:44,833 --> 01:14:49,600
POGUE:
Yellowstone sits atop
the largest volcanic system

1662
01:14:49,633 --> 01:14:52,066
{\an1}in North America.

1663
01:14:52,100 --> 01:14:55,133
{\an1}That unusual geology creates
hot, poisonous pools

1664
01:14:55,166 --> 01:15:00,100
{\an1}that Ward sees as a window
into the past.

1665
01:15:00,133 --> 01:15:01,566
You've installed
a hot tub here.

1666
01:15:01,600 --> 01:15:03,566
POGUE:
The park permits Ward
to collect samples

1667
01:15:03,600 --> 01:15:05,766
{\an1}from these protected
environments.

1668
01:15:05,800 --> 01:15:06,766
So this is you.

1669
01:15:06,800 --> 01:15:07,700
This is your
office, huh?

1670
01:15:07,733 --> 01:15:08,433
{\an1}Yeah.

1671
01:15:08,466 --> 01:15:09,633
{\an1}Now, you are not
actually allowed

1672
01:15:09,666 --> 01:15:10,766
{\an1}to be inside
the rocks there.

1673
01:15:10,800 --> 01:15:13,133
{\an1}You have to have special...
a sampling permit.

1674
01:15:13,166 --> 01:15:14,966
{\an1}You stay here,
and I'll go on across.

1675
01:15:15,000 --> 01:15:17,166
{\an1}Let me know if you need a bottle
of water or something!

1676
01:15:17,200 --> 01:15:18,066
(chuckles)

1677
01:15:18,100 --> 01:15:19,800
{\an1}What is that gizmo
you have there?

1678
01:15:19,833 --> 01:15:23,233
This is a thermistor,
takes temperature.

1679
01:15:23,266 --> 01:15:25,200
{\an1}Oh, we call that
a thermometer.

1680
01:15:25,233 --> 01:15:27,466
{\an1}You know, scientists have
to have fancy words for things.

1681
01:15:27,500 --> 01:15:29,700
POGUE:
Scientists think that in order

1682
01:15:29,733 --> 01:15:31,700
{\an1}to get the energy
they needed to live,

1683
01:15:31,733 --> 01:15:33,933
{\an1}some of the earliest
forms of life

1684
01:15:33,966 --> 01:15:36,100
{\an1}required extremely hot water

1685
01:15:36,133 --> 01:15:39,433
{\an1}mixed with elements like
hydrogen, sulfur and iron.

1686
01:15:42,800 --> 01:15:44,733
{\an1}But as the planet cooled,

1687
01:15:44,766 --> 01:15:47,433
{\an1}another ancient microorganism
evolved and changed everything.

1688
01:15:47,466 --> 01:15:51,166
{\an1}They are called cyanobacteria,

1689
01:15:51,200 --> 01:15:54,700
but we know them
as blue-green algae.

1690
01:15:54,733 --> 01:15:57,933
{\an1}They found a way to get their
energy from light and water,

1691
01:15:57,966 --> 01:16:02,033
{\an1}releasing oxygen as a byproduct,
just like modern plants do.

1692
01:16:02,066 --> 01:16:05,266
{\an1}The evolution of cyanobacteria
set the stage

1693
01:16:05,300 --> 01:16:08,200
{\an1}for all the plant
and animal life that followed.

1694
01:16:08,233 --> 01:16:10,633
{\an8}And in fact,
you can see that clearly here.

1695
01:16:10,666 --> 01:16:12,966
{\an7}You can see this orange
to brown transition.

1696
01:16:13,000 --> 01:16:14,566
{\an7}Yeah.

1697
01:16:14,600 --> 01:16:16,800
And, you know,
this is one set of species,

1698
01:16:16,833 --> 01:16:20,433
{\an1}and then there's another,
and then finally this third.

1699
01:16:20,466 --> 01:16:22,033
POGUE:
Dave Ward offers to introduce me

1700
01:16:22,066 --> 01:16:24,433
{\an1}to one of my oldest
living relatives

1701
01:16:24,466 --> 01:16:27,633
with the help of
an ordinary drinking straw.

1702
01:16:27,666 --> 01:16:29,366
WARD:
And we'll take
a sample here.

1703
01:16:29,400 --> 01:16:31,800
{\an1}This is the real high-tech part.

1704
01:16:31,833 --> 01:16:34,400
{\an1}I use my high-tech soda straw.

1705
01:16:34,433 --> 01:16:36,066
(both laugh)

1706
01:16:36,100 --> 01:16:42,766
Just take aim
and push the straw in,

1707
01:16:42,800 --> 01:16:45,100
and just immerse it
into the liquid nitrogen.

1708
01:16:45,133 --> 01:16:47,100
{\an1}Wow, snap-frozen
for freshness, huh?

1709
01:16:47,133 --> 01:16:47,966
{\an3}Yup.

1710
01:16:48,000 --> 01:16:49,433
POGUE:
The different colors

1711
01:16:49,466 --> 01:16:51,700
{\an1}are actually different species
of microorganism.

1712
01:16:51,733 --> 01:16:55,933
Back at his lab,
Ward prepares the sample.

1713
01:16:55,966 --> 01:16:57,033
{\an1}There we go.

1714
01:16:57,066 --> 01:16:58,433
POGUE:
Here in the layers,

1715
01:16:58,466 --> 01:17:00,933
{\an1}we can see different species
living together

1716
01:17:00,966 --> 01:17:04,766
{\an1}separated by hundreds of
millions of years of evolution.

1717
01:17:04,800 --> 01:17:08,166
{\an1}The thin, greenish layer
on the top is cyanobacteria,

1718
01:17:08,200 --> 01:17:10,233
{\an1}situated at the best spot

1719
01:17:10,266 --> 01:17:14,500
{\an1}to find light, water
and carbon dioxide for growth.

1720
01:17:14,533 --> 01:17:19,533
{\an1}And in the history of life,
it's the cyanobacteria and us

1721
01:17:19,566 --> 01:17:21,300
{\an1}that truly came out on top.

1722
01:17:21,333 --> 01:17:23,333
{\an1}Take a peek here, Dave.

1723
01:17:23,366 --> 01:17:25,833
POGUE:
As they spread out
of the volcanic pools

1724
01:17:25,866 --> 01:17:27,600
{\an1}and colonized the planet,

1725
01:17:27,633 --> 01:17:32,433
{\an1}these tiny organisms pumped out
more and more oxygen.

1726
01:17:32,466 --> 01:17:35,100
{\an1}For a few hundred million years,

1727
01:17:35,133 --> 01:17:38,400
{\an1}oxygen simply reacted with the
metals in the earth's crust,

1728
01:17:38,433 --> 01:17:41,700
{\an1}and the planet slowly rusted.

1729
01:17:41,733 --> 01:17:44,166
{\an1}But eventually the oxygen began
to build up in the atmosphere.

1730
01:17:44,200 --> 01:17:47,966
{\an1}And those little bugs
are still hard at work today.

1731
01:17:48,000 --> 01:17:50,533
WARD:
These little critters that
are making half of the oxygen

1732
01:17:50,566 --> 01:17:53,666
{\an1}that all of the things requiring
oxygen breathe today.

1733
01:17:53,700 --> 01:17:57,700
So they're still at work
making all of this oxygen.

1734
01:17:57,733 --> 01:18:03,933
POGUE:
These microbes changed the face
of an entire planet.

1735
01:18:03,966 --> 01:18:06,100
But where did
the elements of life,

1736
01:18:06,133 --> 01:18:10,166
{\an1}and all the other elements,
come from in the first place?

1737
01:18:10,200 --> 01:18:14,333
{\an1}Let's start at the very
beginning, with hydrogen.

1738
01:18:14,366 --> 01:18:17,333
{\an1}One proton and one electron.

1739
01:18:17,366 --> 01:18:21,833
{\an1}Around 90% of all the atoms
in the universe are hydrogen,

1740
01:18:21,866 --> 01:18:25,333
{\an1}and they were all made
by the Big Bang

1741
01:18:25,366 --> 01:18:27,833
{\an1}more than 13 billion years ago.

1742
01:18:27,866 --> 01:18:30,866
{\an1}But where did things go
from there?

1743
01:18:30,900 --> 01:18:34,766
{\an1}The answer is in the stars,
like our own sun,

1744
01:18:34,800 --> 01:18:37,033
{\an1}a seething cauldron of hot gas

1745
01:18:37,066 --> 01:18:38,933
{\an1}constantly turning
hydrogen atoms

1746
01:18:38,966 --> 01:18:42,066
{\an1}into element number two:
helium.

1747
01:18:42,100 --> 01:18:44,066
{\an1}It's a process called fusion.

1748
01:18:44,100 --> 01:18:46,733
{\an1}And now scientists

1749
01:18:46,766 --> 01:18:48,866
{\an1}at the National Ignition
Facility in California

1750
01:18:48,900 --> 01:18:51,700
{\an1}are actually trying to recreate
that solar process

1751
01:18:51,733 --> 01:18:53,433
here on earth.

1752
01:18:53,466 --> 01:18:57,366
{\an1}If they can make it practical--
and that's a big "if"--

1753
01:18:57,400 --> 01:19:00,266
{\an1}they could unlock a new source
of limitless, clean energy.

1754
01:19:00,300 --> 01:19:03,500
ED MOSES:
So the world is going
to be using more energy.

1755
01:19:03,533 --> 01:19:05,833
POGUE:
Ed Moses is a physicist
who's leading the effort.

1756
01:19:05,866 --> 01:19:08,433
{\an1}And his raw material
is hydrogen,

1757
01:19:08,466 --> 01:19:11,633
{\an1}the smallest and the oldest
element in the universe.

1758
01:19:11,666 --> 01:19:13,733
{\an1}MOSES:
Around 30 seconds
after the Big Bang,

1759
01:19:13,766 --> 01:19:15,966
{\an1}all that hydrogen appeared.

1760
01:19:16,000 --> 01:19:16,900
From the Big Bang?

1761
01:19:16,933 --> 01:19:17,833
{\an1}From the Big Bang.

1762
01:19:17,866 --> 01:19:19,600
{\an1}It sort of has an infinite life.

1763
01:19:19,633 --> 01:19:22,733
{\an1}So we, when we, you know,
drink a glass of water,

1764
01:19:22,766 --> 01:19:24,833
{\an1}are sampling the Big Bang.

1765
01:19:24,866 --> 01:19:27,333
POGUE:
Fusion forces two hydrogen atoms

1766
01:19:27,366 --> 01:19:30,066
{\an1}to merge into a single
helium atom.

1767
01:19:30,100 --> 01:19:31,566
Pound for pound,

1768
01:19:31,600 --> 01:19:34,800
{\an1}it's the most energetic reaction
in the cosmos.

1769
01:19:34,833 --> 01:19:37,433
{\an1}And that's what his facility
would like to reproduce.

1770
01:19:37,466 --> 01:19:39,633
{\an1}We crash them together,
and what happens is

1771
01:19:39,666 --> 01:19:45,233
{\an1}we turn mass into energy,
just like Einstein told us.

1772
01:19:45,266 --> 01:19:48,033
POGUE:
To do this, Ed's team focuses

1773
01:19:48,066 --> 01:19:52,000
{\an1}192 of the world's
most powerful laser beams

1774
01:19:52,033 --> 01:19:56,566
{\an1}onto a bb-sized capsule
containing hydrogen atoms.

1775
01:19:56,600 --> 01:19:58,766
This fuses them
into helium atoms

1776
01:19:58,800 --> 01:20:03,700
{\an1}and releases a 100-million-
degree pulse of energy.

1777
01:20:03,733 --> 01:20:07,166
{\an1}The goal is to create
a sustained fusion reaction,

1778
01:20:07,200 --> 01:20:11,233
{\an1}but right now it lasts only
a billionth of a second.

1779
01:20:11,266 --> 01:20:13,900
{\an1}Stars create helium throughout
their long lives,

1780
01:20:13,933 --> 01:20:15,300
{\an1}but in their old age,

1781
01:20:15,333 --> 01:20:18,700
{\an1}they run low on hydrogen
and begin to fuse helium,

1782
01:20:18,733 --> 01:20:22,000
creating larger
and larger elements.

1783
01:20:22,033 --> 01:20:24,900
{\an7}And you'll start walking up
the periodic table,

1784
01:20:24,933 --> 01:20:27,466
{\an7}making more and more elements.

1785
01:20:27,500 --> 01:20:28,866
{\an1}First you made helium;

1786
01:20:28,900 --> 01:20:32,500
{\an1}then you'll make lithium
and beryllium and boron.

1787
01:20:32,533 --> 01:20:36,533
{\an1}And you can do this
all the way up to iron.

1788
01:20:36,566 --> 01:20:42,000
POGUE:
By the time it's fusing iron,
a star is in its death throes.

1789
01:20:42,033 --> 01:20:45,100
{\an1}It begins to collapse,
and if it's massive enough,

1790
01:20:45,133 --> 01:20:47,666
{\an1}that collapse leads
to a powerful explosion

1791
01:20:47,700 --> 01:20:51,466
{\an1}called a supernova.

1792
01:20:51,500 --> 01:20:53,266
{\an1}In that intense flash,

1793
01:20:53,300 --> 01:20:56,600
{\an1}the supernova creates elements
heavier than iron,

1794
01:20:56,633 --> 01:20:59,233
{\an1}launching them all
into the cosmos,

1795
01:20:59,266 --> 01:21:03,566
{\an1}creating the raw materials
of planets and of life.

1796
01:21:03,600 --> 01:21:06,433
{\an1}And now we're using
those raw materials

1797
01:21:06,466 --> 01:21:08,366
{\an1}to shape our civilization,

1798
01:21:08,400 --> 01:21:11,700
{\an1}with elements like silicon--

1799
01:21:11,733 --> 01:21:14,666
{\an1}14 protons, 14 electrons,

1800
01:21:14,700 --> 01:21:18,933
{\an1}the second most abundant element
in the earth's rocky crust.

1801
01:21:18,966 --> 01:21:22,433
{\an1}A member of one of the smallest
neighborhoods on the table,

1802
01:21:22,466 --> 01:21:24,900
{\an1}the semiconductors.

1803
01:21:24,933 --> 01:21:26,633
When most people
think of silicon,

1804
01:21:26,666 --> 01:21:29,633
{\an1}they think of computer chips
and the information age.

1805
01:21:29,666 --> 01:21:32,800
{\an1}But its most familiar form
is actually in this.

1806
01:21:34,700 --> 01:21:35,966
{\an1}For more than 5,000 years,

1807
01:21:36,000 --> 01:21:41,100
{\an1}silicon glass has brought light
and beauty to our lives.

1808
01:21:41,133 --> 01:21:43,333
{\an1}Today, scientists
are re-engineering

1809
01:21:43,366 --> 01:21:46,900
{\an1}this ancient material
atom by atom

1810
01:21:46,933 --> 01:21:49,033
here at Corning
in upstate New York.

1811
01:21:49,066 --> 01:21:50,533
PETER BOCKO:
You know, David,

1812
01:21:50,566 --> 01:21:54,766
{\an1}this place looks and sounds
like a blacksmith shop,

1813
01:21:54,800 --> 01:21:56,866
{\an1}but actually it's
a scientific laboratory.

1814
01:21:56,900 --> 01:21:58,166
{\an1}POGUE:
They're fiddling around

1815
01:21:58,200 --> 01:21:59,566
{\an1}with various combinations
of elements,

1816
01:21:59,600 --> 01:22:01,600
{\an4}seeing what kind of glass
comes out.
That's right, yeah.

1817
01:22:01,633 --> 01:22:04,733
POGUE:
They tell me it all starts
with ordinary sand,

1818
01:22:04,766 --> 01:22:08,133
{\an1}which is made of a combination
of silicon and oxygen.

1819
01:22:08,166 --> 01:22:11,333
{\an1}But sand is opaque, isn't it?

1820
01:22:11,366 --> 01:22:14,766
{\an1}It turns out it's much more
glasslike than I thought.

1821
01:22:14,800 --> 01:22:19,833
BOCKO:
Under magnification, sand looks
like little tiny glass jewels

1822
01:22:19,866 --> 01:22:22,233
{\an1}that are essentially
transparent.

1823
01:22:22,266 --> 01:22:23,933
POGUE:
So the light's coming
from underneath

1824
01:22:23,966 --> 01:22:26,066
{\an1}these grains of sand and
shining right through them?

1825
01:22:26,100 --> 01:22:28,700
{\an1}Yep, and you know, it shows
that it's transparent.

1826
01:22:28,733 --> 01:22:30,666
POGUE:
That is so weird.

1827
01:22:30,700 --> 01:22:33,866
POGUE:
Melting sand and then
allowing it to cool

1828
01:22:33,900 --> 01:22:36,066
{\an1}begins to turn it into glass.

1829
01:22:36,100 --> 01:22:37,933
Feels like thick,
heavy vinyl.

1830
01:22:37,966 --> 01:22:40,733
POGUE:
Glass is surprisingly strong.

1831
01:22:40,766 --> 01:22:43,300
{\an1}It can withstand a lot
of crushing force.

1832
01:22:43,333 --> 01:22:46,000
{\an1}But it's also very brittle.

1833
01:22:46,033 --> 01:22:50,166
{\an1}Is there any way to get
around that weakness?

1834
01:22:50,200 --> 01:22:54,966
BOCKO:
What the scientists do is
they can tailor the glass

1835
01:22:55,000 --> 01:22:58,533
{\an1}by adding other things
other than the sand

1836
01:22:58,566 --> 01:23:01,900
{\an7}to engineer the properties
they want to into the glass.

1837
01:23:01,933 --> 01:23:04,866
{\an1}Should I worry that my gloves
are on fire?

1838
01:23:04,900 --> 01:23:07,700
POGUE:
Changing the 5,000-year-old
recipe for glass

1839
01:23:07,733 --> 01:23:10,700
{\an1}has led to a new form they call
Gorilla Glass,

1840
01:23:10,733 --> 01:23:14,333
{\an1}and you can probably guess
why they named it that.

1841
01:23:14,366 --> 01:23:15,766
Something that we call
a drop test.

1842
01:23:15,800 --> 01:23:18,300
With the glass, uh,
is in a frame,

1843
01:23:18,333 --> 01:23:21,033
like we have a piece
of Gorilla Glass in this.

1844
01:23:21,066 --> 01:23:22,200
And the ball is dropped

1845
01:23:22,233 --> 01:23:23,366
{\an1}from a height of one meter.

1846
01:23:23,400 --> 01:23:25,433
{\an1}How thick is this piece
of glass?

1847
01:23:25,466 --> 01:23:26,900
This is 0.7 millimeters.

1848
01:23:26,933 --> 01:23:27,966
{\an7}Not even a millimeter?

1849
01:23:28,000 --> 01:23:28,933
{\an8}Not even
a millimeter thick.

1850
01:23:28,966 --> 01:23:30,033
{\an7}We're going to drop
four pounds on that?

1851
01:23:30,066 --> 01:23:30,766
{\an8}That's right.

1852
01:23:30,800 --> 01:23:32,933
David, this is
our hail gun.

1853
01:23:32,966 --> 01:23:36,700
It shoots a ball of ice
at 60 to 70 miles an hour.

1854
01:23:36,733 --> 01:23:39,500
{\an1}Ready, aim, hail!

1855
01:23:40,900 --> 01:23:44,633
So this is a sample
of our special glass.

1856
01:23:44,666 --> 01:23:46,266
{\an1}This is plastic, dude.

1857
01:23:46,300 --> 01:23:47,866
{\an1}I can make a paper
airplane out of this.

1858
01:23:47,900 --> 01:23:49,033
Yeah, yeah.

1859
01:23:52,300 --> 01:23:53,300
It didn't break.

1860
01:23:53,333 --> 01:23:55,366
{\an1}Oh my gosh, it's going
to fold it in half.

1861
01:23:55,400 --> 01:23:56,633
{\an1}BOCKO:
There's a lot
of bend to it.

1862
01:23:56,666 --> 01:23:58,300
POGUE:
Ready, aim, fire!

1863
01:23:58,333 --> 01:24:02,533
POGUE:
The secret behind these weirdly
durable forms of glass

1864
01:24:02,566 --> 01:24:05,200
is engineering
on the atomic scale.

1865
01:24:05,233 --> 01:24:06,500
Sweet!

1866
01:24:06,533 --> 01:24:07,700
Clearly it worked.

1867
01:24:07,733 --> 01:24:09,566
The 70-mile-an-hour
golf-ball-sized hail

1868
01:24:09,600 --> 01:24:11,266
{\an1}did absolutely nothing to it.

1869
01:24:11,300 --> 01:24:14,166
{\an1}The glassmakers have learned
how to precisely place

1870
01:24:14,200 --> 01:24:16,333
{\an7}minute amounts of metal atoms--

1871
01:24:16,366 --> 01:24:19,166
{\an7}like sodium, potassium,
and aluminum--

1872
01:24:19,200 --> 01:24:21,533
{\an1}among the silicon atoms.

1873
01:24:21,566 --> 01:24:25,966
{\an1}The result is hard yet flexible,
and scratch resistant.

1874
01:24:26,000 --> 01:24:27,033
{\an1}No!

1875
01:24:27,066 --> 01:24:28,800
{\an1}But is it really glass?

1876
01:24:28,833 --> 01:24:30,733
{\an1}You maintain that this is
not, in fact, plastic,

1877
01:24:30,766 --> 01:24:32,766
{\an1}that this is
actually glass.
Mm-hmm, yup.

1878
01:24:32,800 --> 01:24:35,566
But yet very strong,
within reason.

1879
01:24:35,600 --> 01:24:38,033
There is no such thing
as an unbreakable glass.

1880
01:24:38,066 --> 01:24:39,300
It is a glass...
Oh!

1881
01:24:39,333 --> 01:24:41,100
{\an1}Oh!
It is a glass...

1882
01:24:41,133 --> 01:24:43,566
So there are limits.

1883
01:24:43,600 --> 01:24:49,466
POGUE:
These days we need strong glass
for lenses, fiber optics

1884
01:24:49,500 --> 01:24:51,766
{\an1}and screens of all sizes.

1885
01:24:51,800 --> 01:24:54,100
{\an1}Hey, I'm on TV!

1886
01:24:54,133 --> 01:24:56,566
{\an1}But silicon's work
is not yet done.

1887
01:24:58,266 --> 01:25:02,266
{\an1}Because underneath the glass,
there's a lot more silicon

1888
01:25:02,300 --> 01:25:05,100
in the guts
of all those electronics.

1889
01:25:05,133 --> 01:25:08,866
{\an1}Silicon is the standard bearer
of the semiconductors,

1890
01:25:08,900 --> 01:25:12,033
{\an1}materials that change
from free-flowing conductors

1891
01:25:12,066 --> 01:25:14,533
{\an1}to nonflowing insulators

1892
01:25:14,566 --> 01:25:17,800
{\an1}when we simply zap them
with an electric current.

1893
01:25:17,833 --> 01:25:20,033
{\an1}Switches made out
of semiconductors

1894
01:25:20,066 --> 01:25:21,966
{\an1}made computers possible.

1895
01:25:22,000 --> 01:25:24,366
{\an1}But lately, when it comes
to high tech,

1896
01:25:24,400 --> 01:25:26,700
{\an1}there's a new family
on the block:

1897
01:25:26,733 --> 01:25:29,433
the rare earths.

1898
01:25:29,466 --> 01:25:33,633
{\an1}15 elements located
near the bottom of the table.

1899
01:25:33,666 --> 01:25:35,800
And in my job as
a technology writer,

1900
01:25:35,833 --> 01:25:37,933
{\an1}there's one rare earth
that interests me

1901
01:25:37,966 --> 01:25:38,933
{\an1}more than any other:

1902
01:25:38,966 --> 01:25:40,900
neodymium.

1903
01:25:40,933 --> 01:25:45,266
{\an1}It's the key ingredient in the
world's strongest magnets.

1904
01:25:45,300 --> 01:25:48,000
{\an1}They're critical to computers,
cell phones,

1905
01:25:48,033 --> 01:25:53,300
{\an1}hybrid cars, wind turbines,
even tiny earbuds.

1906
01:25:53,333 --> 01:25:56,133
{\an1}Without neodymium, we'd be sunk.

1907
01:25:56,166 --> 01:25:57,900
{\an1}So that raises a question:

1908
01:25:57,933 --> 01:25:59,500
{\an1}if they're in everything,

1909
01:25:59,533 --> 01:26:01,566
{\an1}how come they're called
"rare" earths?

1910
01:26:01,600 --> 01:26:05,200
{\an1}The best place to find out
is at the source.

1911
01:26:05,233 --> 01:26:09,766
{\an1}John Burba is the chief
technology officer at Molycorp.

1912
01:26:09,800 --> 01:26:12,366
He's overseeing
a billion-dollar operation

1913
01:26:12,400 --> 01:26:17,766
{\an1}to bring this 50-year-old mine
into the 21st century.

1914
01:26:17,800 --> 01:26:19,933
{\an1}So how many rare earth mines
like this are there

1915
01:26:19,966 --> 01:26:20,966
{\an1}in the United States?

1916
01:26:21,000 --> 01:26:22,033
{\an3}One.

1917
01:26:22,066 --> 01:26:23,200
{\an1}This is it?

1918
01:26:23,233 --> 01:26:24,800
This is it.

1919
01:26:24,833 --> 01:26:28,000
POGUE:
One mine in the United States,

1920
01:26:28,033 --> 01:26:30,800
{\an1}and John tells me it's not even
fully operational yet.

1921
01:26:30,833 --> 01:26:32,300
So...

1922
01:26:32,333 --> 01:26:34,666
{\an1}Where do rare earth minerals
come from in the world?

1923
01:26:34,700 --> 01:26:36,966
{\an7}The majority of it
comes from China.

1924
01:26:37,000 --> 01:26:38,366
{\an7}What kind of majority?

1925
01:26:38,400 --> 01:26:39,766
{\an8}Like 98%.

1926
01:26:39,800 --> 01:26:41,700
{\an1}98% of these minerals
come from China?

1927
01:26:41,733 --> 01:26:43,000
{\an3}Yes.

1928
01:26:43,033 --> 01:26:45,200
POGUE:
Then he breaks the news

1929
01:26:45,233 --> 01:26:47,600
{\an1}that the Chinese government
has been limiting the export

1930
01:26:47,633 --> 01:26:51,066
{\an1}of these strategically
important elements.

1931
01:26:51,100 --> 01:26:52,866
{\an1}Seems like the fate
of the free world

1932
01:26:52,900 --> 01:26:54,233
{\an1}could be riding on these rocks.

1933
01:26:54,266 --> 01:26:57,766
{\an1}I'd better get some of my own
while the gettin' is good.

1934
01:26:57,800 --> 01:27:00,000
{\an1}But look for stuff
like this.

1935
01:27:00,033 --> 01:27:02,200
{\an1}We'll find out how good
a geologist you are.

1936
01:27:02,233 --> 01:27:03,233
This reddish stuff?

1937
01:27:03,266 --> 01:27:04,466
{\an1}Yeah.

1938
01:27:04,500 --> 01:27:05,566
This is a hunk
of... what?

1939
01:27:05,600 --> 01:27:07,433
{\an1}Barite, barium sulfate,

1940
01:27:07,466 --> 01:27:09,300
{\an1}it's got some
monazite in it.

1941
01:27:09,333 --> 01:27:10,833
{\an1}They are naturally
occurring crystals

1942
01:27:10,866 --> 01:27:11,833
{\an1}that contain the elements.

1943
01:27:11,866 --> 01:27:13,700
So can I get a few more
of these?

1944
01:27:13,733 --> 01:27:15,766
{\an1}Yeah, just look
for stuff that's similar.

1945
01:27:15,800 --> 01:27:16,900
{\an1}You know what, John?

1946
01:27:16,933 --> 01:27:18,933
{\an1}I like these two a lot.

1947
01:27:18,966 --> 01:27:20,300
I can't decide.

1948
01:27:20,333 --> 01:27:22,233
It's an either/
"ore" situation.

1949
01:27:22,266 --> 01:27:23,633
(laughs)

1950
01:27:23,666 --> 01:27:27,466
{\an1}So how can I find out which
elements are in this hunk?

1951
01:27:27,500 --> 01:27:31,333
POGUE:
Molycorp's facility is still
under construction.

1952
01:27:31,366 --> 01:27:33,433
So to find out
what's in my rocks,

1953
01:27:33,466 --> 01:27:35,300
{\an1}he suggests I take them
to the world's

1954
01:27:35,333 --> 01:27:40,966
{\an1}premier rare earth research lab
in Ames, Iowa.

1955
01:27:43,300 --> 01:27:45,533
{\an1}We'll be there soon.

1956
01:27:45,566 --> 01:27:47,500
{\an1}I'm dying to know what
I've got my hands on.

1957
01:27:47,533 --> 01:27:50,600
{\an1}A pinch of praseodymium,
perhaps?

1958
01:27:50,633 --> 01:27:52,533
{\an1}A whole pound of holmium?

1959
01:27:52,566 --> 01:27:55,166
{\an1}A thimbleful of thulium?

1960
01:27:55,200 --> 01:27:59,200
Or, dare I hope,
magnet-making neodymium?

1961
01:27:59,233 --> 01:28:01,766
{\an1}If anyone can extract
all the precious neodymium

1962
01:28:01,800 --> 01:28:04,166
from my rocks,
it's these guys.

1963
01:28:04,200 --> 01:28:05,733
{\an8}David, I've been
expecting you.

1964
01:28:05,766 --> 01:28:06,733
{\an8}Good to see you.

1965
01:28:06,766 --> 01:28:07,766
{\an7}David Pogue,
how are you?

1966
01:28:07,800 --> 01:28:08,800
{\an8}Yes, sir, yes, sir.

1967
01:28:08,833 --> 01:28:09,900
{\an8}I see you brought
the ore with you.

1968
01:28:09,933 --> 01:28:11,433
{\an1}I brought this all the way
from California.

1969
01:28:11,466 --> 01:28:12,333
All the way,
all right!

1970
01:28:12,366 --> 01:28:13,366
{\an1}I carried it by hand.

1971
01:28:13,400 --> 01:28:14,300
{\an1}Uh-huh.

1972
01:28:14,333 --> 01:28:15,666
Because, you know,
it's rare earth...

1973
01:28:15,700 --> 01:28:16,900
It's rare earth.

1974
01:28:16,933 --> 01:28:18,566
{\an1}...ore, and I didn't want
anything to happen.

1975
01:28:18,600 --> 01:28:21,100
{\an1}I didn't check it,
I didn't put it in the overhead.

1976
01:28:21,133 --> 01:28:22,666
{\an1}I think I've got
some beautiful samples.

1977
01:28:22,700 --> 01:28:23,666
Oh, yeah.

1978
01:28:23,700 --> 01:28:24,766
{\an1}There's this mine
in California,

1979
01:28:24,800 --> 01:28:25,500
{\an1}the largest one
in the United States.

1980
01:28:25,533 --> 01:28:27,533
{\an1}Look at the size
of this one.

1981
01:28:27,566 --> 01:28:29,400
{\an1}I think this one's
my favorite.
Oh, yeah.

1982
01:28:29,433 --> 01:28:31,033
{\an1}I thought if we
brought it here to Ames Lab,

1983
01:28:31,066 --> 01:28:32,300
{\an1}I thought you could, uh,

1984
01:28:32,333 --> 01:28:33,600
{\an1}do a little chemical analysis
on it and tell me...

1985
01:28:33,633 --> 01:28:34,733
We certainly can.

1986
01:28:34,766 --> 01:28:36,300
We'll take your
favorite one and...

1987
01:28:36,333 --> 01:28:37,266
{\an1}Watch out with the hammer.

1988
01:28:37,300 --> 01:28:38,666
{\an1}What are you... ?

1989
01:28:38,700 --> 01:28:40,400
There we go, that's
a good piece right there.

1990
01:28:40,433 --> 01:28:42,700
{\an1}That's all we're going to need
for the chemical analysis,

1991
01:28:42,733 --> 01:28:44,233
so the rest of this
we'll just...

1992
01:28:44,266 --> 01:28:45,266
Yeah, but...

1993
01:28:45,300 --> 01:28:46,900
...throw it right here
in the trash.

1994
01:28:46,933 --> 01:28:48,866
{\an1}But that's, that's rare... ah!

1995
01:28:48,900 --> 01:28:50,100
California!

1996
01:28:50,133 --> 01:28:53,600
POGUE:
The truth is,
rare earths are not rare.

1997
01:28:53,633 --> 01:28:56,766
{\an1}They're just notoriously hard
to separate.

1998
01:28:56,800 --> 01:28:59,300
The problem is,
at an atomic level,

1999
01:28:59,333 --> 01:29:02,366
{\an1}the rare earth elements
all look weirdly alike.

2000
01:29:02,400 --> 01:29:05,100
{\an1}Moving from element to element

2001
01:29:05,133 --> 01:29:07,133
along a row
of the periodic table

2002
01:29:07,166 --> 01:29:11,800
{\an1}adds a proton to the nucleus and
an electron to the outer shell.

2003
01:29:11,833 --> 01:29:13,633
{\an1}But in the rare earths,

2004
01:29:13,666 --> 01:29:17,300
{\an1}the new electron disappears
into an unfilled inner shell.

2005
01:29:17,333 --> 01:29:19,400
The result?

2006
01:29:19,433 --> 01:29:23,133
{\an1}15 atoms that all have identical
outer electron shells,

2007
01:29:23,166 --> 01:29:26,600
{\an1}making them virtually
indistinguishable chemically.

2008
01:29:26,633 --> 01:29:28,366
{\an1}But what about my rocks?

2009
01:29:28,400 --> 01:29:30,166
{\an1}Okay, David, the ore
that you brought us,

2010
01:29:30,200 --> 01:29:31,433
{\an1}the rocks that look like this,

2011
01:29:31,466 --> 01:29:34,133
{\an1}we analyzed those,
and this is what we found.

2012
01:29:34,166 --> 01:29:35,333
{\an1}We found major components

2013
01:29:35,366 --> 01:29:39,833
{\an1}of cerium, lanthanum
and praseodymium.

2014
01:29:39,866 --> 01:29:41,433
POGUE:
But no neodymium.

2015
01:29:41,466 --> 01:29:44,700
{\an1}Apparently, my rocks
are neo free.

2016
01:29:44,733 --> 01:29:46,700
{\an1}But there was some good news.

2017
01:29:46,733 --> 01:29:51,633
{\an1}The ore I brought in contained
a whopping 20% rare earth oxide.

2018
01:29:51,666 --> 01:29:54,400
{\an1}Molycorp may soon be able

2019
01:29:54,433 --> 01:29:59,000
{\an1}to take a big bite out
of China's near monopoly.

2020
01:29:59,033 --> 01:30:01,500
{\an1}Before I head out, though,

2021
01:30:01,533 --> 01:30:03,900
{\an1}there's one more lab
I'm determined to visit.

2022
01:30:03,933 --> 01:30:06,500
So David, would you be
interested in seeing

2023
01:30:06,533 --> 01:30:08,366
a rare earth magnet?

2024
01:30:08,400 --> 01:30:11,333
POGUE:
Paul is one of the lab's
top magnet guys.

2025
01:30:11,366 --> 01:30:13,533
{\an1}This is a rare
earth magnet.

2026
01:30:13,566 --> 01:30:15,866
{\an1}This is actually neodymium,
iron and boron.

2027
01:30:15,900 --> 01:30:18,466
{\an1}This is about 150 grams

2028
01:30:18,500 --> 01:30:21,933
{\an1}of the world's highest
purity neodymium.

2029
01:30:21,966 --> 01:30:25,166
POGUE:
Neodymium magnets are
a bit of a misnomer.

2030
01:30:25,200 --> 01:30:28,800
{\an1}They're really iron magnets
with a pinch of neodymium added

2031
01:30:28,833 --> 01:30:31,866
{\an1}like a powerful spice
to make them stronger,

2032
01:30:31,900 --> 01:30:36,600
{\an1}plus a few boron atoms to help
hold everything in place.

2033
01:30:36,633 --> 01:30:37,766
You grow these?

2034
01:30:37,800 --> 01:30:39,633
You don't dig these out
of the ore somehow?

2035
01:30:39,666 --> 01:30:41,266
{\an1}No, no, no,
these don't exist in nature.

2036
01:30:41,300 --> 01:30:43,800
{\an7}These are things that we have
to combine and cook

2037
01:30:43,833 --> 01:30:45,666
{\an7}in the same way
that huevos rancheros

2038
01:30:45,700 --> 01:30:47,100
{\an7}doesn't exist in nature.

2039
01:30:47,133 --> 01:30:48,366
{\an1}It has to be put together.

2040
01:30:48,400 --> 01:30:51,333
POGUE:
Paul's lab is like
a dieter's kitchen,

2041
01:30:51,366 --> 01:30:54,966
{\an1}satisfying a hunger
for powerful magnetic crystals

2042
01:30:55,000 --> 01:30:59,000
{\an1}while reducing the amount of
neodymium needed in the recipe.

2043
01:30:59,033 --> 01:31:02,600
{\an1}And he's just about to whip up
a fresh batch.

2044
01:31:02,633 --> 01:31:05,633
{\an1}The main ingredient
is ordinary iron.

2045
01:31:05,666 --> 01:31:07,000
{\an1}Iron makes magnets...

2046
01:31:07,033 --> 01:31:08,333
CANFIELD:
There you go!

2047
01:31:08,366 --> 01:31:10,633
{\an1}...but adding neodymium
makes magnets on steroids.

2048
01:31:10,666 --> 01:31:12,100
{\an1}Here's how you make a magnet.

2049
01:31:12,133 --> 01:31:14,700
{\an1}First, all the solid ingredients

2050
01:31:14,733 --> 01:31:18,366
{\an1}are sealed into a quartz tube
to be melted together.

2051
01:31:18,400 --> 01:31:20,833
{\an1}David Pogue: Scientist!

2052
01:31:20,866 --> 01:31:23,300
{\an1}After some time in the furnace,

2053
01:31:23,333 --> 01:31:26,833
{\an1}tiny magnetic crystals have
formed in the melted iron.

2054
01:31:26,866 --> 01:31:28,900
{\an1}2,000 degree...
oh, my gosh!

2055
01:31:28,933 --> 01:31:30,633
{\an1}It's like threading
a needle!

2056
01:31:30,666 --> 01:31:33,933
{\an1}The next step is to separate
the solids from the liquid.

2057
01:31:33,966 --> 01:31:36,666
{\an1}One, two, three,
dump it in, slam the lid.

2058
01:31:36,700 --> 01:31:39,400
{\an1}They put the centrifuge
on the floor for safety

2059
01:31:39,433 --> 01:31:42,333
{\an1}in case anything goes wrong
with the super-hot vial.

2060
01:31:42,366 --> 01:31:43,466
We turn it off.

2061
01:31:43,500 --> 01:31:45,466
{\an1}That lets you open it up.

2062
01:31:45,500 --> 01:31:48,966
{\an1}And we can take it out.

2063
01:31:49,000 --> 01:31:51,900
{\an1}We have single crystals
of the neodymium iron boron

2064
01:31:51,933 --> 01:31:53,966
{\an1}separated
from the extra liquid,

2065
01:31:54,000 --> 01:31:58,100
{\an1}which the centrifuge separated
with the ten to 100 G's.

2066
01:31:58,133 --> 01:32:00,533
POGUE:
The result of all this cooking
and spinning?

2067
01:32:00,566 --> 01:32:05,166
{\an1}A powerful magnet that uses
less neodymium, we hope.

2068
01:32:05,200 --> 01:32:06,533
It sounds like
you're saying

2069
01:32:06,566 --> 01:32:08,700
{\an1}you're trying to use as little
of the rare earth as possible.

2070
01:32:08,733 --> 01:32:09,666
{\an1}Absolutely.

2071
01:32:09,700 --> 01:32:10,966
{\an3}Why?

2072
01:32:11,000 --> 01:32:12,800
{\an1}'Cause I thought rare earths
aren't really that rare.

2073
01:32:12,833 --> 01:32:15,733
{\an1}The rare earths are not rare,
but they're hard to separate.

2074
01:32:15,766 --> 01:32:18,100
{\an1}And that's part
of the expense.

2075
01:32:18,133 --> 01:32:21,700
POGUE:
Even with Paul's help,
it looks like rare earths

2076
01:32:21,733 --> 01:32:25,766
{\an1}are going to remain in short
supply, at least for now.

2077
01:32:25,800 --> 01:32:27,866
{\an1}Partly because scientists
continue to find

2078
01:32:27,900 --> 01:32:31,466
{\an1}surprising new ways
to use these strange metals.

2079
01:32:31,500 --> 01:32:35,000
{\an1}Like marine biologist and
conservationist Patrick Rice.

2080
01:32:35,033 --> 01:32:37,266
{\an1}If he has anything to say
about it,

2081
01:32:37,300 --> 01:32:41,300
{\an1}rare earths may be coming soon
to a fish hook near you.

2082
01:32:41,333 --> 01:32:42,966
{\an1}Ah, is this your little
kiddie pool

2083
01:32:43,000 --> 01:32:44,433
{\an1}where you bring
the children to swim?

2084
01:32:44,466 --> 01:32:46,800
{\an1}This is our little tank here
where we have, um,

2085
01:32:46,833 --> 01:32:47,966
{\an1}a couple little bonnet
head sharks

2086
01:32:48,000 --> 01:32:50,700
{\an1}and a little nurse shark
in here.

2087
01:32:50,733 --> 01:32:53,366
POGUE:
Rice was searching for the next
great shark repellent

2088
01:32:53,400 --> 01:32:55,366
when he made
an accidental discovery

2089
01:32:55,400 --> 01:32:59,566
{\an1}that looks like it'll be good
news for both man and fish.

2090
01:32:59,600 --> 01:33:02,033
{\an1}RICE:
We had sharks
in a tank like this,

2091
01:33:02,066 --> 01:33:03,733
and a pump broke
on one of our tanks,

2092
01:33:03,766 --> 01:33:05,200
{\an1}and so we were playing
with these magnets

2093
01:33:05,233 --> 01:33:06,666
{\an1}and we put the magnets
down by the tank

2094
01:33:06,700 --> 01:33:08,000
{\an1}to go fix the pump,

2095
01:33:08,033 --> 01:33:11,333
{\an1}and when we put the magnet by
the tank, the sharks took off.

2096
01:33:11,366 --> 01:33:14,166
POGUE:
Somehow, the sharks
inside the tank

2097
01:33:14,200 --> 01:33:17,133
{\an1}sensed the presence of magnets
outside the tank,

2098
01:33:17,166 --> 01:33:19,500
{\an1}and when they did,
they voted with their fins.

2099
01:33:22,100 --> 01:33:25,166
{\an1}Patrick offers to demonstrate
the weird repulsive effect.

2100
01:33:25,200 --> 01:33:29,100
{\an1}He hands me a case
of super-strong magnets.

2101
01:33:29,133 --> 01:33:32,866
{\an1}So this is full of actual
regular, old refrigerator...

2102
01:33:32,900 --> 01:33:35,166
{\an1}Oh, yeah, more than
refrigerator magnets.

2103
01:33:35,200 --> 01:33:36,866
That's right,
that's right.

2104
01:33:36,900 --> 01:33:39,633
{\an1}And you're saying that this
will somehow repel the sharks?

2105
01:33:39,666 --> 01:33:42,933
{\an1}Okay, here comes
a little guy.

2106
01:33:42,966 --> 01:33:44,300
{\an1}That's a little nurse shark,
it might work for him.

2107
01:33:44,333 --> 01:33:45,733
{\an1}Tell me when he
gets over here.

2108
01:33:45,766 --> 01:33:47,366
All right,
three, two, one.

2109
01:33:47,400 --> 01:33:50,200
{\an1}Oh, my gosh, it's like you
dropped that thing on his head.

2110
01:33:50,233 --> 01:33:51,466
{\an1}RICE:
Yeah, you saw it, huh?

2111
01:33:51,500 --> 01:33:53,100
Yeah, he's like,
dun dun dun, wow!

2112
01:33:53,133 --> 01:33:54,233
{\an1}He whipped out of there.

2113
01:33:54,266 --> 01:33:55,300
{\an1}Right, exactly.

2114
01:33:55,333 --> 01:33:57,633
POGUE:
The shark can't see the magnet,

2115
01:33:57,666 --> 01:33:59,666
{\an1}but it obviously feels
the effect.

2116
01:33:59,700 --> 01:34:00,766
{\an7}And it's not happy.

2117
01:34:00,800 --> 01:34:04,566
{\an7}One, two, three, now.

2118
01:34:04,600 --> 01:34:06,033
{\an7}Boom, you got him.

2119
01:34:06,066 --> 01:34:07,766
{\an1}Really?
Yeah, you got him.

2120
01:34:07,800 --> 01:34:09,000
{\an1}That's crazy.
Isn't it amazing?

2121
01:34:09,033 --> 01:34:12,033
POGUE:
Patrick thought he could somehow
use this effect

2122
01:34:12,066 --> 01:34:15,400
{\an1}to save sharks from being
inadvertently caught

2123
01:34:15,433 --> 01:34:17,200
{\an1}by commercial fishermen.

2124
01:34:17,233 --> 01:34:21,000
{\an1}But there was, so to speak,
a catch.

2125
01:34:21,033 --> 01:34:23,366
{\an1}We put the magnet right above
the hook on the line.

2126
01:34:23,400 --> 01:34:25,433
{\an1}And what was happening was
the hooks were swinging around

2127
01:34:25,466 --> 01:34:26,700
{\an1}and getting caught
on the magnets.

2128
01:34:26,733 --> 01:34:27,600
That would happen.

2129
01:34:27,633 --> 01:34:28,866
{\an1}So it wasn't catching
any sharks,

2130
01:34:28,900 --> 01:34:30,933
{\an1}but it wasn't catching
anything else either.

2131
01:34:30,966 --> 01:34:33,433
POGUE:
But he wasn't willing
to give up.

2132
01:34:33,466 --> 01:34:36,200
{\an1}He decided he needed to find
the weakest possible magnet

2133
01:34:36,233 --> 01:34:39,433
{\an1}that would still affect sharks.

2134
01:34:39,466 --> 01:34:41,766
{\an1}The first step was to create
a baseline for comparison

2135
01:34:41,800 --> 01:34:45,366
{\an1}by exposing sharks
to nonmagnetic materials.

2136
01:34:45,400 --> 01:34:48,500
{\an1}He offers to recreate
his experiment.

2137
01:34:48,533 --> 01:34:50,200
{\an1}You know, I don't have
insurance for this.

2138
01:34:50,233 --> 01:34:52,133
Be careful.
It might be slippery.

2139
01:34:52,166 --> 01:34:53,900
{\an1}You're warning me
about the slipperiness?

2140
01:34:53,933 --> 01:34:55,900
{\an1}Dude, there's
three sharks in here!

2141
01:34:55,933 --> 01:34:57,700
RICE:
No, but they're nice.

2142
01:34:57,733 --> 01:35:00,233
{\an1}Okay, I just want to say, for
the record, that I'm standing

2143
01:35:00,266 --> 01:35:01,700
{\an1}in a tank full of sharks.

2144
01:35:01,733 --> 01:35:02,833
That's correct.

2145
01:35:02,866 --> 01:35:05,433
{\an1}This is like<i>Jaws 7:
The Kiddie Pool.</i>

2146
01:35:07,333 --> 01:35:10,266
POGUE:
Step one: capture a shark.

2147
01:35:10,300 --> 01:35:12,933
{\an1}Dude, you just caught
a shark with your bare hands!

2148
01:35:12,966 --> 01:35:15,933
POGUE:
Then flip the shark
upside down,

2149
01:35:15,966 --> 01:35:19,966
{\an1}which induces a trance state
called tonic immobility.

2150
01:35:20,000 --> 01:35:21,333
{\an1}Once the shark is calm,

2151
01:35:21,366 --> 01:35:23,666
{\an1}we test its reaction

2152
01:35:23,700 --> 01:35:26,300
{\an1}to a piece of ordinary,
nonmagnetic lead.

2153
01:35:26,333 --> 01:35:29,000
{\an1}Would you like me to just conk
her on the head with this?

2154
01:35:29,033 --> 01:35:30,500
Cover up her eyes.

2155
01:35:30,533 --> 01:35:32,833
{\an1}So it's not
a visual thing.

2156
01:35:32,866 --> 01:35:36,333
{\an8}POGUE:
Using a shield to make sure that
the shark can't see the metal,

2157
01:35:36,366 --> 01:35:38,233
{\an7}I bring it close.

2158
01:35:38,266 --> 01:35:39,833
{\an8}No reaction.

2159
01:35:39,866 --> 01:35:40,733
{\an7}None at all.

2160
01:35:40,766 --> 01:35:41,933
{\an8}POGUE:
As expected.

2161
01:35:41,966 --> 01:35:44,700
{\an7}Next, a nonmagnetic
piece of samarium,

2162
01:35:44,733 --> 01:35:46,600
{\an7}a rare earth element.

2163
01:35:46,633 --> 01:35:49,366
{\an1}The expectation was that
because it's nonmagnetic,

2164
01:35:49,400 --> 01:35:50,866
{\an1}there would be no reaction.

2165
01:35:50,900 --> 01:35:52,766
{\an1}Oh, man!

2166
01:35:52,800 --> 01:35:54,266
She didn't like that
at all.

2167
01:35:54,300 --> 01:35:55,900
{\an1}This is like
kryptonite for sharks!

2168
01:35:55,933 --> 01:35:56,766
Yes, it is.

2169
01:35:56,800 --> 01:35:57,666
{\an1}Wow, that's amazing.

2170
01:35:57,700 --> 01:35:59,866
{\an1}It just woke her up
and drove her crazy.

2171
01:35:59,900 --> 01:36:01,200
{\an3}Yep.

2172
01:36:01,233 --> 01:36:04,433
{\an1}So the idea is you could make
what out of this stuff?

2173
01:36:04,466 --> 01:36:06,100
Well, the idea is that
it's not magnetic,

2174
01:36:06,133 --> 01:36:07,833
so we could potentially
incorporate it

2175
01:36:07,866 --> 01:36:08,833
into a fishing hook.

2176
01:36:08,866 --> 01:36:12,233
{\an1}And then you got something
that repels sharks

2177
01:36:12,266 --> 01:36:15,333
but doesn't have
the magnetic properties,

2178
01:36:15,366 --> 01:36:18,566
{\an1}so it won't tangle the gear
and stuff like that.

2179
01:36:18,600 --> 01:36:20,700
POGUE:
The discovery
that nonmagnetic rare earths

2180
01:36:20,733 --> 01:36:24,733
{\an1}have a repellent effect
on sharks was a complete fluke.

2181
01:36:24,766 --> 01:36:27,700
{\an1}And it works with other
rare earth metals as well.

2182
01:36:27,733 --> 01:36:29,733
But why?

2183
01:36:29,766 --> 01:36:33,800
{\an1}What do sharks have against
these particular elements?

2184
01:36:33,833 --> 01:36:35,400
{\an8}We believe it's creating
a little electric shock.

2185
01:36:35,433 --> 01:36:36,733
{\an7}A little electric shock?

2186
01:36:36,766 --> 01:36:37,766
{\an8}Yeah, yeah.

2187
01:36:37,800 --> 01:36:38,766
{\an7}A shark shock.

2188
01:36:38,800 --> 01:36:40,000
A shark shocker.

2189
01:36:40,033 --> 01:36:41,500
POGUE:
Patrick demonstrates
using a beaker of seawater,

2190
01:36:41,533 --> 01:36:46,533
{\an1}a piece of samarium, a voltmeter
and an actual shark fin.

2191
01:36:46,566 --> 01:36:48,333
{\an1}(singing<i>Jaws</i>theme):
Bum bum, bum bum,
bum bum, bum bum...

2192
01:36:48,366 --> 01:36:50,300
POGUE:
When he submerges the samarium

2193
01:36:50,333 --> 01:36:52,100
{\an1}and the shark fin
in the seawater,

2194
01:36:52,133 --> 01:36:54,866
{\an1}an electric current flows.

2195
01:36:54,900 --> 01:36:56,166
{\an1}Whoa!

2196
01:36:56,200 --> 01:36:56,966
{\an1}Oh, my God.

2197
01:36:57,000 --> 01:36:58,433
That's almost
a D-size battery.

2198
01:36:58,466 --> 01:37:00,666
{\an1}Did we just make,
in effect, a battery?

2199
01:37:00,700 --> 01:37:01,800
Correct.

2200
01:37:01,833 --> 01:37:05,066
POGUE:
As a group, the rare earths

2201
01:37:05,100 --> 01:37:08,266
{\an1}give up their outer electrons
very easily.

2202
01:37:08,300 --> 01:37:09,600
{\an1}In the salt water,

2203
01:37:09,633 --> 01:37:11,966
{\an1}samarium atoms break free
of the metal disk

2204
01:37:12,000 --> 01:37:15,100
{\an1}and give up one or more
of their outer electrons.

2205
01:37:15,133 --> 01:37:18,000
The atoms become
positively charged

2206
01:37:18,033 --> 01:37:20,166
{\an1}and are attracted
to the shark fin,

2207
01:37:20,200 --> 01:37:22,200
which, like many
biological materials,

2208
01:37:22,233 --> 01:37:25,133
{\an1}has a slight negative charge.

2209
01:37:25,166 --> 01:37:26,933
The movement
of the charged atoms

2210
01:37:26,966 --> 01:37:28,333
{\an1}creates an electric current.

2211
01:37:28,366 --> 01:37:30,300
{\an1}Wow, that's some real juice
flowing in there.

2212
01:37:30,333 --> 01:37:32,066
{\an1}Just like in a battery.

2213
01:37:32,100 --> 01:37:33,700
{\an1}It's a complete
closed circuit,

2214
01:37:33,733 --> 01:37:35,000
{\an1}and the voltmeter's
measuring that.

2215
01:37:35,033 --> 01:37:36,633
{\an1}That's pretty amazing.
Yeah.

2216
01:37:36,666 --> 01:37:40,400
POGUE:
But is the effect
actually strong enough

2217
01:37:40,433 --> 01:37:42,466
{\an1}to put a shark off its meal?

2218
01:37:42,500 --> 01:37:43,800
{\an1}So we've just done
our little test...

2219
01:37:43,833 --> 01:37:45,533
POGUE:
There's one final experiment
we can run to find out.

2220
01:37:45,566 --> 01:37:47,233
{\an1}What we're going
to do now...

2221
01:37:47,266 --> 01:37:48,500
Whoa!

2222
01:37:48,533 --> 01:37:49,400
Thank you.

2223
01:37:49,433 --> 01:37:50,333
{\an1}You're welcome.

2224
01:37:50,366 --> 01:37:51,866
{\an1}That was just for
the blooper reel.

2225
01:37:51,900 --> 01:37:53,266
We like to get
some material...

2226
01:37:53,300 --> 01:37:55,266
POGUE:
As I was saying,

2227
01:37:55,300 --> 01:37:59,366
{\an1}there's one final experiment
we can run to find out.

2228
01:37:59,400 --> 01:38:01,166
{\an1}What we're going
to do here is

2229
01:38:01,200 --> 01:38:03,433
a little experiment
we've never done before.

2230
01:38:03,466 --> 01:38:06,000
{\an1}You haven't done
this before?

2231
01:38:06,033 --> 01:38:07,166
We haven't done
this before.

2232
01:38:07,200 --> 01:38:09,366
{\an1}You waited until there was
a national TV camera rolling?

2233
01:38:09,400 --> 01:38:11,300
(whistling)

2234
01:38:11,333 --> 01:38:13,500
POGUE:
There's a nine-foot lemon shark
in this lagoon,

2235
01:38:13,533 --> 01:38:15,700
{\an1}and it's lunchtime.

2236
01:38:15,733 --> 01:38:18,000
{\an1}Now for the test.

2237
01:38:18,033 --> 01:38:21,466
{\an1}We're going to suspend
two identical pieces of tuna.

2238
01:38:21,500 --> 01:38:23,533
{\an1}One will hang below a piece
of lead--

2239
01:38:23,566 --> 01:38:25,000
{\an1}that's our control--

2240
01:38:25,033 --> 01:38:28,066
{\an1}the other under a piece
of samarium.

2241
01:38:28,100 --> 01:38:29,000
You go ahead and
put it out there.

2242
01:38:29,033 --> 01:38:29,600
{\an1}Really?

2243
01:38:29,633 --> 01:38:30,333
Yup.

2244
01:38:30,366 --> 01:38:31,233
{\an1}Lower her down.

2245
01:38:31,266 --> 01:38:32,600
POGUE:
If the test is successful,

2246
01:38:32,633 --> 01:38:35,400
{\an1}the shark should avoid
the samarium-tainted meal,

2247
01:38:35,433 --> 01:38:38,400
{\an1}but not the food near the lead.

2248
01:38:38,433 --> 01:38:39,866
{\an1}RICE:
Here she comes.

2249
01:38:39,900 --> 01:38:41,433
{\an1}POGUE:
Oh, she didn't
like it at all.

2250
01:38:41,466 --> 01:38:43,566
{\an1}She was aiming right at it
and she was like, ugh!

2251
01:38:43,600 --> 01:38:45,066
{\an1}RICE:
That was
an excellent response.

2252
01:38:45,100 --> 01:38:48,000
{\an1}Notice the other fish-- it
doesn't have any effect on them.

2253
01:38:49,866 --> 01:38:52,000
{\an1}Okay, wait a minute,
now she's going for the lead.

2254
01:38:52,033 --> 01:38:54,600
{\an1}RICE:
So there's the control.

2255
01:38:54,633 --> 01:38:56,166
{\an1}POGUE:
And she loves the lead one!

2256
01:38:56,200 --> 01:38:59,933
{\an1}RICE:
No problem on the control,
so that's awesome.

2257
01:38:59,966 --> 01:39:02,366
POGUE:
Since making this remarkable
discovery,

2258
01:39:02,400 --> 01:39:04,766
{\an1}Patrick has experimented
with designs

2259
01:39:04,800 --> 01:39:06,400
{\an1}for shark-repelling
fishing hooks,

2260
01:39:06,433 --> 01:39:09,466
{\an1}and he's seen some
promising results.

2261
01:39:09,500 --> 01:39:11,566
{\an1}The last experiment we did,
we put out 46,000 hooks

2262
01:39:11,600 --> 01:39:13,333
and we reduced
shark by-catch by 27%.

2263
01:39:13,366 --> 01:39:15,933
{\an1}POGUE:
Get your fresh chum here!

2264
01:39:15,966 --> 01:39:18,133
POGUE:
Shark zapping is just
the latest entry

2265
01:39:18,166 --> 01:39:21,466
{\an1}in the growing list of curious
rare earth abilities.

2266
01:39:21,500 --> 01:39:25,833
{\an1}But perhaps the real shocker
is that these 15 elements

2267
01:39:25,866 --> 01:39:28,166
{\an1}were so long misunderstood,

2268
01:39:28,200 --> 01:39:32,833
{\an1}their identities masked by their
identical outer electron shells.

2269
01:39:32,866 --> 01:39:36,900
{\an1}But those aren't the only atoms
hiding from view.

2270
01:39:36,933 --> 01:39:39,233
{\an1}Scientists now know
that most elements

2271
01:39:39,266 --> 01:39:41,400
{\an1}come in more than one version.

2272
01:39:41,433 --> 01:39:44,733
{\an1}The different versions
are called isotopes.

2273
01:39:44,766 --> 01:39:48,333
Consider carbon,
the backbone of life.

2274
01:39:48,366 --> 01:39:51,733
{\an1}It has three natural isotopes,
or versions.

2275
01:39:51,766 --> 01:39:54,766
{\an1}Each has six protons
and six electrons--

2276
01:39:54,800 --> 01:39:56,866
{\an1}that's what makes
them all carbon.

2277
01:39:56,900 --> 01:39:58,733
{\an1}The difference between them is

2278
01:39:58,766 --> 01:40:01,000
{\an1}the number of neutrons
in the nucleus.

2279
01:40:01,033 --> 01:40:03,666
{\an1}Neutrons are electrically
neutral particles

2280
01:40:03,700 --> 01:40:06,666
that act as glue
to hold atoms together.

2281
01:40:06,700 --> 01:40:11,166
{\an1}What we think of as normal
carbon is called carbon-12,

2282
01:40:11,200 --> 01:40:14,700
{\an1}six protons plus six neutrons.

2283
01:40:14,733 --> 01:40:18,766
{\an1}But about one percent of carbon
atoms have an extra neutron,

2284
01:40:18,800 --> 01:40:20,533
{\an1}giving them seven.

2285
01:40:20,566 --> 01:40:23,400
{\an1}They're called carbon-13.

2286
01:40:23,433 --> 01:40:26,900
{\an1}And about one in a million
have eight neutrons--

2287
01:40:26,933 --> 01:40:29,066
{\an1}that's carbon-14.

2288
01:40:29,100 --> 01:40:31,366
{\an1}And that rare version of carbon

2289
01:40:31,400 --> 01:40:35,200
{\an1}has proven to be a crucial tool
for unlocking the past.

2290
01:40:38,033 --> 01:40:41,833
{\an1}Several times a year,
scientist Scott Stine travels

2291
01:40:41,866 --> 01:40:45,600
{\an1}to the shores of Mono Lake
near Yosemite National Park.

2292
01:40:45,633 --> 01:40:48,066
{\an1}So this, then,
is Mono Lake.

2293
01:40:48,100 --> 01:40:49,433
Mono Lake, yeah.

2294
01:40:49,466 --> 01:40:52,233
Right here at the foot
of the Sierra Nevada.

2295
01:40:52,266 --> 01:40:55,966
POGUE:
He's studying the long history
of droughts in California,

2296
01:40:56,000 --> 01:40:58,166
{\an1}trying to determine
how frequently they occur

2297
01:40:58,200 --> 01:41:00,566
{\an1}and how long they last.

2298
01:41:00,600 --> 01:41:04,133
{\an1}Over the millennia, the water
level has risen and fallen

2299
01:41:04,166 --> 01:41:07,700
{\an1}as the area has cycled between
wet periods and dry times.

2300
01:41:07,733 --> 01:41:10,633
{\an1}So that sandy area
should be the level?

2301
01:41:10,666 --> 01:41:12,700
{\an1}STINE:
During times when
the climate was dry,

2302
01:41:12,733 --> 01:41:15,266
{\an1}Mono Lake dropped down,
exposed the shore lands

2303
01:41:15,300 --> 01:41:17,900
{\an1}and allowed trees
and shrubs to grow.

2304
01:41:17,933 --> 01:41:21,266
POGUE:
When the dry periods ended
and the water level rose,

2305
01:41:21,300 --> 01:41:25,466
{\an1}the trees drowned,
marking the end of the droughts.

2306
01:41:25,500 --> 01:41:28,166
{\an1}Since then, the remains
of those trees

2307
01:41:28,200 --> 01:41:32,100
{\an1}have been well-preserved
by the arid climate.

2308
01:41:32,133 --> 01:41:34,933
{\an8}These droughts were
long persistent.

2309
01:41:34,966 --> 01:41:37,100
{\an8}POGUE:
To determine how long ago
these droughts occurred,

2310
01:41:37,133 --> 01:41:41,366
{\an1}Scott is using carbon-14
to date the trees.

2311
01:41:41,400 --> 01:41:44,400
{\an1}Unlike the other natural
isotopes of carbon,

2312
01:41:44,433 --> 01:41:47,733
{\an1}carbon-14 is unstable.

2313
01:41:47,766 --> 01:41:51,000
{\an1}Over time, its atoms begin
to deteriorate.

2314
01:41:51,033 --> 01:41:53,700
{\an1}One of its neutrons
turns into a proton

2315
01:41:53,733 --> 01:41:56,233
{\an1}and spits out an electron.

2316
01:41:56,266 --> 01:41:59,066
{\an1}Now with seven protons
instead of six,

2317
01:41:59,100 --> 01:42:01,966
{\an1}it's turned into nitrogen.

2318
01:42:02,000 --> 01:42:04,866
{\an1}That process is called
radioactive decay,

2319
01:42:04,900 --> 01:42:07,800
{\an1}and scientists know exactly
how long it will take

2320
01:42:07,833 --> 01:42:13,000
{\an1}for half of any amount
of carbon-14 to decay away.

2321
01:42:13,033 --> 01:42:17,033
{\an1}Scientists call that time
its half-life.

2322
01:42:17,066 --> 01:42:19,933
Living things
constantly replenish

2323
01:42:19,966 --> 01:42:21,566
{\an1}the carbon in their bodies--

2324
01:42:21,600 --> 01:42:24,966
{\an1}animals from food,

2325
01:42:25,000 --> 01:42:27,100
{\an1}plants from the atmosphere.

2326
01:42:27,133 --> 01:42:30,400
But after death,
that process stops.

2327
01:42:30,433 --> 01:42:33,366
{\an1}The amount of carbon-12 stays
the same,

2328
01:42:33,400 --> 01:42:38,500
{\an1}but the carbon-14 decays away
at a constant rate,

2329
01:42:38,533 --> 01:42:42,300
making carbon-14
a ticking atomic clock.

2330
01:42:42,333 --> 01:42:45,233
{\an1}To know how long ago
this ancient tree died,

2331
01:42:45,266 --> 01:42:49,566
{\an1}we just need to count the carbon
atoms in a small sample.

2332
01:42:49,600 --> 01:42:51,033
Piece of cake!

2333
01:42:51,066 --> 01:42:52,333
{\an1}If you're this guy.

2334
01:42:52,366 --> 01:42:55,100
{\an1}Now, these are fragments
of the tree stumps at Mono Lake,

2335
01:42:55,133 --> 01:42:58,566
{\an1}and I understand that you are
the master of carbon dating.

2336
01:42:58,600 --> 01:43:02,633
POGUE:
Physicist Tom Brown works
in the carbon-dating program

2337
01:43:02,666 --> 01:43:05,166
{\an1}at Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory.

2338
01:43:05,200 --> 01:43:06,500
{\an7}In fact, if I'm not mistaken,

2339
01:43:06,533 --> 01:43:08,733
{\an7}carbon dating
actually preexisted

2340
01:43:08,766 --> 01:43:10,100
{\an7}before Internet dating.

2341
01:43:10,133 --> 01:43:11,533
{\an8}Very much.

2342
01:43:11,566 --> 01:43:17,666
POGUE:
Carbon-14 can be used to date
samples up to 40,000 years old.

2343
01:43:17,700 --> 01:43:20,233
{\an1}It's been used to find the ages
of many Egyptian mummies

2344
01:43:20,266 --> 01:43:23,866
{\an1}and other ancient artifacts.

2345
01:43:23,900 --> 01:43:27,133
{\an1}So how does wood fare
with carbon dating?

2346
01:43:27,166 --> 01:43:29,166
{\an1}Intact wood is very good
material to date.

2347
01:43:29,200 --> 01:43:32,900
{\an1}It retains the carbon
from when that material died

2348
01:43:32,933 --> 01:43:35,100
{\an1}and we're able to extract
and purify it

2349
01:43:35,133 --> 01:43:37,900
{\an1}and get a really good material
for dating.

2350
01:43:37,933 --> 01:43:40,400
POGUE:
Tom needs only a small amount
of wood.

2351
01:43:40,433 --> 01:43:43,066
{\an1}Even this tiny sample
is overkill.

2352
01:43:43,100 --> 01:43:47,800
{\an1}A lab technician cleans it
and reduces it to a fine powder.

2353
01:43:47,833 --> 01:43:51,866
{\an1}Oh, man, this huge thing?

2354
01:43:51,900 --> 01:43:54,566
This is your
Carbon-Dater-Matic 3000?

2355
01:43:54,600 --> 01:43:58,100
POGUE:
The actual counting of the atoms
takes place here,

2356
01:43:58,133 --> 01:44:00,566
{\an1}in the carbon-dating
accelerator.

2357
01:44:00,600 --> 01:44:03,866
I see you bought
the camping version.

2358
01:44:03,900 --> 01:44:05,700
BROWN:
We have our one milligram of
carbon from the woodchip sample

2359
01:44:05,733 --> 01:44:08,100
{\an1}basically in that hole.

2360
01:44:08,133 --> 01:44:09,333
{\an1}In that tiny little hole?

2361
01:44:09,366 --> 01:44:10,900
{\an1}That's where the one
milligram of carbon is

2362
01:44:10,933 --> 01:44:11,900
{\an1}from that sample.

2363
01:44:11,933 --> 01:44:13,233
{\an1}Not a lot of wood chips.

2364
01:44:13,266 --> 01:44:17,600
{\an1}We put about 64 of these holders
in one of these wheels.

2365
01:44:17,633 --> 01:44:18,966
POGUE:
The accelerator applies

2366
01:44:19,000 --> 01:44:21,366
{\an1}a powerful electric charge
to the atoms--

2367
01:44:21,400 --> 01:44:22,966
{\an1}basically lightning--

2368
01:44:23,000 --> 01:44:25,833
{\an1}giving them the speed
and energy they need

2369
01:44:25,866 --> 01:44:28,566
{\an1}to hit a detector
with enough force to be counted.

2370
01:44:28,600 --> 01:44:30,566
BROWN:
The ratio of the carbon-14 ions

2371
01:44:30,600 --> 01:44:34,266
{\an7}to the amount of carbon-12
in the sample

2372
01:44:34,300 --> 01:44:36,733
{\an7}tells us how old
the sample is.

2373
01:44:36,766 --> 01:44:39,866
{\an1}The fewer the carbon-14s,
the older it is?

2374
01:44:39,900 --> 01:44:40,666
{\an1}Yes.

2375
01:44:40,700 --> 01:44:42,933
POGUE:
With his accelerator,

2376
01:44:42,966 --> 01:44:46,866
{\an1}Tom calculates that our tree
died about 150 years ago.

2377
01:44:46,900 --> 01:44:50,200
{\an1}That must have been when
California's last drought ended,

2378
01:44:50,233 --> 01:44:52,133
{\an1}a key piece of information

2379
01:44:52,166 --> 01:44:55,266
{\an1}for understanding
the region's climate cycles.

2380
01:44:55,300 --> 01:44:59,266
{\an1}Carbon-14 has helped open up
deep insights into the past,

2381
01:44:59,300 --> 01:45:02,500
{\an1}but it's just one of hundreds
of radioactive isotopes--

2382
01:45:02,533 --> 01:45:04,933
{\an1}that is, elements that decay.

2383
01:45:04,966 --> 01:45:07,233
{\an1}In fact, at the bottom
of the periodic table,

2384
01:45:07,266 --> 01:45:10,466
{\an1}beginning with number 84,
polonium,

2385
01:45:10,500 --> 01:45:14,300
{\an1}all of the elements and their
isotopes are radioactive,

2386
01:45:14,333 --> 01:45:17,533
{\an1}including the element that
stands for both the promise

2387
01:45:17,566 --> 01:45:19,633
{\an1}and the peril of radioactivity:

2388
01:45:19,666 --> 01:45:21,666
uranium.

2389
01:45:21,700 --> 01:45:28,200
{\an1}92 protons, 92 electrons
and 146 neutrons.

2390
01:45:28,233 --> 01:45:30,400
{\an1}Before the nuclear age,

2391
01:45:30,433 --> 01:45:34,100
{\an1}uranium was thought to be
the end of the periodic table.

2392
01:45:34,133 --> 01:45:36,100
{\an1}But in the last 70 years,

2393
01:45:36,133 --> 01:45:38,266
scientists have
left nature behind

2394
01:45:38,300 --> 01:45:42,400
{\an1}and created 26 new elements.

2395
01:45:42,433 --> 01:45:44,866
{\an1}The age of man-made atoms

2396
01:45:44,900 --> 01:45:47,300
{\an1}began in the first half
of the 20th century,

2397
01:45:47,333 --> 01:45:49,900
{\an1}when researchers began
bombarding elements

2398
01:45:49,933 --> 01:45:52,100
with neutrons.

2399
01:45:52,133 --> 01:45:54,266
{\an1}Sometimes the neutron
is simply absorbed,

2400
01:45:54,300 --> 01:45:56,833
{\an1}creating a new isotope.

2401
01:45:56,866 --> 01:46:00,300
{\an1}But sometimes the nucleus
can't take the punishment.

2402
01:46:00,333 --> 01:46:04,333
{\an1}It becomes unstable and splits
into two smaller atoms

2403
01:46:04,366 --> 01:46:07,066
{\an1}in a powerful reaction
called fission

2404
01:46:07,100 --> 01:46:10,200
that releases
large amounts of energy.

2405
01:46:10,233 --> 01:46:13,066
To learn more,
I've come to the Nuclear Museum

2406
01:46:13,100 --> 01:46:15,133
{\an1}in Albuquerque, New Mexico...

2407
01:46:15,166 --> 01:46:17,200
MATT DENNIS:
Yeah, this is a mad
science project.

2408
01:46:17,233 --> 01:46:19,433
{\an1}...where atomic scientist
Matt Dennis

2409
01:46:19,466 --> 01:46:22,466
{\an1}has offered to demonstrate
how a nuclear reactor works.

2410
01:46:22,500 --> 01:46:24,500
D'oh!

2411
01:46:24,533 --> 01:46:26,300
{\an1}You guys make a lot of jokes
about "Gone Fission?"

2412
01:46:26,333 --> 01:46:27,966
{\an1}I actually have
an atomic shirt

2413
01:46:28,000 --> 01:46:29,700
{\an1}that says something
to that effect, so yes.

2414
01:46:29,733 --> 01:46:31,300
{\an1}I knew that! I knew that!

2415
01:46:31,333 --> 01:46:32,700
Okay, now,
to the naked eye,

2416
01:46:32,733 --> 01:46:34,933
this looks exactly
like a nuclear reactor.

2417
01:46:34,966 --> 01:46:37,733
{\an1}(Klaxon horn blows)

2418
01:46:37,766 --> 01:46:41,933
{\an1}DENNIS:
The similarities are the
mousetraps are uranium atoms

2419
01:46:41,966 --> 01:46:44,900
{\an1}and the white ping-pong balls
are neutrons,

2420
01:46:44,933 --> 01:46:47,600
{\an7}which you use one to start
a chain reaction.

2421
01:46:47,633 --> 01:46:51,966
POGUE:
In a reactor, one neutron splits
a uranium atom,

2422
01:46:52,000 --> 01:46:55,766
{\an1}which releases energy
and two or three more neutrons,

2423
01:46:55,800 --> 01:46:58,100
{\an1}which in turn split more atoms,

2424
01:46:58,133 --> 01:47:00,533
{\an1}releasing more neutrons
and so on,

2425
01:47:00,566 --> 01:47:03,033
{\an1}causing a chain reaction.

2426
01:47:03,066 --> 01:47:05,366
So you get more
and more neutrons,

2427
01:47:05,400 --> 01:47:07,300
{\an1}and thus the chain reaction
keeps going.

2428
01:47:07,333 --> 01:47:08,933
All right,
ladies and jelly-spoons

2429
01:47:08,966 --> 01:47:11,366
here goes the orange
ping-pong ball.

2430
01:47:11,400 --> 01:47:15,033
{\an1}This evening's role, you'll be
portraying the neutron.

2431
01:47:15,066 --> 01:47:16,533
All right,
I just drop it in here?

2432
01:47:16,566 --> 01:47:17,733
Any old place?

2433
01:47:17,766 --> 01:47:19,966
{\an1}Just drop it in right there,
we'll start the chain reaction.

2434
01:47:20,000 --> 01:47:22,033
Incoming neutron!

2435
01:47:26,166 --> 01:47:28,200
(laughs)

2436
01:47:28,233 --> 01:47:30,733
I'm sorry, Matt,
the camera wasn't rolling.

2437
01:47:30,766 --> 01:47:31,966
Can you set
that up again?

2438
01:47:32,000 --> 01:47:36,600
{\an8}POGUE:
From a single neutron,
an escalating response.

2439
01:47:36,633 --> 01:47:39,933
{\an7}Our mousetrap reactor
doesn't have many atoms,

2440
01:47:39,966 --> 01:47:42,533
{\an7}so the reaction dies quickly.

2441
01:47:42,566 --> 01:47:44,633
{\an1}But pack enough fissionable
uranium atoms

2442
01:47:44,666 --> 01:47:46,366
{\an1}closely enough together

2443
01:47:46,400 --> 01:47:50,100
{\an1}and the whole thing can get
out of hand pretty fast.

2444
01:47:50,133 --> 01:47:52,866
{\an1}And sometimes that's the point.

2445
01:47:54,933 --> 01:47:57,833
{\an1}This museum has the world's
largest public collection

2446
01:47:57,866 --> 01:48:02,600
{\an1}of artifacts that chronicle
the dark side of nuclear energy.

2447
01:48:02,633 --> 01:48:04,933
JAMES WALTHER:
And so that's a Trident
Z-3 up there.

2448
01:48:04,966 --> 01:48:06,600
POGUE:
That's huge.

2449
01:48:06,633 --> 01:48:08,233
You guys are just
surrounded by bombs.

2450
01:48:08,266 --> 01:48:10,133
I feel like a kid
in a death store.

2451
01:48:10,166 --> 01:48:14,633
POGUE:
In 1945, the U.S. developed
two atomic weapons.

2452
01:48:14,666 --> 01:48:16,833
{\an1}Both were used against Japan.

2453
01:48:16,866 --> 01:48:21,266
{\an1}The first was fueled by
an isotope called uranium-235.

2454
01:48:21,300 --> 01:48:23,300
{\an1}That bomb was called Little Boy.

2455
01:48:23,333 --> 01:48:25,266
This is the
Little Boy bomb.

2456
01:48:25,300 --> 01:48:26,266
This is the...

2457
01:48:26,300 --> 01:48:27,266
This is it?

2458
01:48:27,300 --> 01:48:28,566
I guess I shouldn't
bump it then, huh?

2459
01:48:28,600 --> 01:48:30,300
{\an7}Well, it's a current...
concurrent copy.

2460
01:48:30,333 --> 01:48:31,600
{\an7}This is just like it.

2461
01:48:31,633 --> 01:48:34,366
Inside this big case
was a gun barrel

2462
01:48:34,400 --> 01:48:36,200
and high explosives
on the ends

2463
01:48:36,233 --> 01:48:39,866
{\an1}to push the two pieces
of enriched uranium together

2464
01:48:39,900 --> 01:48:41,133
{\an1}at supersonic speed.

2465
01:48:41,166 --> 01:48:44,500
POGUE:
The military made
only one uranium bomb,

2466
01:48:44,533 --> 01:48:49,500
{\an1}because separating rare U-235
from the more common U-238,

2467
01:48:49,533 --> 01:48:51,666
{\an1}which doesn't work
in fission reactions,

2468
01:48:51,700 --> 01:48:53,233
{\an1}is a very difficult process.

2469
01:48:53,266 --> 01:48:58,166
{\an1}So for the second bomb,
called Fat Man,

2470
01:48:58,200 --> 01:49:01,133
{\an1}they used an entirely
different element:

2471
01:49:01,166 --> 01:49:02,800
plutonium--

2472
01:49:02,833 --> 01:49:07,366
{\an1}94 protons, 94 electrons,
and 150 neutrons.

2473
01:49:10,100 --> 01:49:13,833
{\an1}Plutonium was the first
man-made element.

2474
01:49:13,866 --> 01:49:18,533
{\an1}It was identified in 1940
by chemist Glenn Seaborg,

2475
01:49:18,566 --> 01:49:22,366
{\an1}when he bombarded uranium atoms
with protons and neutrons

2476
01:49:22,400 --> 01:49:26,233
{\an1}until some of them stuck.

2477
01:49:26,266 --> 01:49:28,600
{\an1}Over his long career,
Seaborg went on

2478
01:49:28,633 --> 01:49:35,066
{\an1}to isolate or create
nine more man-made elements,

2479
01:49:35,100 --> 01:49:39,166
{\an1}including Americium,
which is in minute quantities
including Americium,
which is in minute quantities

2480
01:49:39,200 --> 01:49:41,366
{\an1}in the smoke alarms
in our homes.

2481
01:49:41,400 --> 01:49:44,266
{\an1}He pushed the end
of the periodic table

2482
01:49:44,300 --> 01:49:46,900
{\an1}all the way to element 106,

2483
01:49:46,933 --> 01:49:51,433
{\an1}which is called Seaborgium
in his honor.

2484
01:49:51,466 --> 01:49:53,333
{\an1}I started out, uh,
here at the laboratory

2485
01:49:53,366 --> 01:49:55,433
{\an1}using these counters
quite frequently...

2486
01:49:55,466 --> 01:49:58,066
POGUE:
Ken Moody is a chemist
at Lawrence Livermore Lab.

2487
01:49:58,100 --> 01:50:01,400
{\an1}But he developed a love
of big fat juicy atoms

2488
01:50:01,433 --> 01:50:06,133
{\an1}as a graduate student
in Seaborg's lab in the 1970s.

2489
01:50:06,166 --> 01:50:09,600
{\an1}Afterwards, his first job was
analyzing radioactive debris

2490
01:50:09,633 --> 01:50:13,066
{\an1}produced by underground
nuclear weapon tests.

2491
01:50:13,100 --> 01:50:15,033
{\an1}And it was our job
to go pick samples

2492
01:50:15,066 --> 01:50:16,600
{\an1}and tell the physicists
how well this device had worked.

2493
01:50:16,633 --> 01:50:17,833
{\an1}POGUE:
I think I'm smart
enough to know

2494
01:50:17,866 --> 01:50:19,866
{\an1}that those fragments
would probably be radioactive.

2495
01:50:19,900 --> 01:50:20,566
Yes.

2496
01:50:20,600 --> 01:50:21,800
{\an1}Would they not
be dangerous?

2497
01:50:21,833 --> 01:50:25,900
{\an1}Uh, well, we didn't carry 'em
around in our pockets.

2498
01:50:25,933 --> 01:50:27,600
POGUE:
Since the end of the cold war,

2499
01:50:27,633 --> 01:50:31,333
{\an1}Ken's goal has been to expand
the periodic table.

2500
01:50:31,366 --> 01:50:33,133
He's teamed up
with a Russian lab,

2501
01:50:33,166 --> 01:50:35,166
{\an1}and together they've succeeded

2502
01:50:35,200 --> 01:50:39,400
{\an1}in creating six new elements
in this cyclotron.

2503
01:50:39,433 --> 01:50:41,000
{\an1}But there's a hitch.

2504
01:50:41,033 --> 01:50:43,233
{\an1}They've only made
a few atoms of each,

2505
01:50:43,266 --> 01:50:44,933
{\an1}and they're all so unstable,

2506
01:50:44,966 --> 01:50:48,900
{\an1}they decay away almost as soon
as they come into existence.

2507
01:50:48,933 --> 01:50:51,066
POGUE:
With all due respect,

2508
01:50:51,100 --> 01:50:53,800
none of the six elements
that you've discovered

2509
01:50:53,833 --> 01:50:55,433
{\an1}are actually in the world
right now.

2510
01:50:55,466 --> 01:50:56,600
{\an1}That's correct.

2511
01:50:56,633 --> 01:50:58,000
So do they count?

2512
01:50:58,033 --> 01:51:00,300
{\an7}Doesn't sound like much,
but for a chemist,

2513
01:51:00,333 --> 01:51:01,966
{\an7}a ten-second activity

2514
01:51:02,000 --> 01:51:04,133
{\an7}actually allows you
to do something with it,

2515
01:51:04,166 --> 01:51:06,633
{\an1}but it isn't enough that you can
put it in a bottle

2516
01:51:06,666 --> 01:51:10,066
{\an1}and put it on the mantelpiece
and admire it the next day.

2517
01:51:10,100 --> 01:51:13,600
POGUE:
Still, Ken has high hopes
for the future.

2518
01:51:13,633 --> 01:51:15,133
{\an1}He believes that somewhere

2519
01:51:15,166 --> 01:51:17,733
beyond today's
largest man-made elements,

2520
01:51:17,766 --> 01:51:19,933
{\an1}scientists will find an island
of stability

2521
01:51:19,966 --> 01:51:22,400
{\an1}on the periodic table

2522
01:51:22,433 --> 01:51:26,033
{\an1}where some super-large atoms
will be both stable and useful,

2523
01:51:26,066 --> 01:51:30,133
{\an1}perhaps satisfying the needs
of our future civilization.

2524
01:51:30,166 --> 01:51:32,100
{\an1}It's amazing to think

2525
01:51:32,133 --> 01:51:34,600
{\an1}that something as complex
as the physical universe

2526
01:51:34,633 --> 01:51:37,700
{\an1}can be put on a single chart.

2527
01:51:37,733 --> 01:51:40,033
And from about
90 basic elements,

2528
01:51:40,066 --> 01:51:43,033
{\an1}man and nature have teamed up

2529
01:51:43,066 --> 01:51:47,300
{\an1}to create the incredible variety
of stuff in our lives.

2530
01:51:47,333 --> 01:51:49,700
{\an1}And the story is far from over.

2531
01:51:49,733 --> 01:51:52,366
{\an1}As scientists continue to hunt
the secrets of the elements,

2532
01:51:52,400 --> 01:51:55,800
{\an1}what new understanding
and technologies will follow

2533
01:51:55,833 --> 01:51:58,866
{\an1}can only be imagined.

2534
01:52:19,600 --> 01:52:21,566
{\an1}do Alley.

2535
01:52:21,600 --> 01:52:23,833
{\an8}MAN:
It's coming on the ground
right here!

2536
01:52:23,866 --> 01:52:25,966
{\an7}<i>Shattering records and lives.</i>

2537
01:52:26,000 --> 01:52:27,666
{\an8}WOMAN:
Oh, these poor people!

2538
01:52:27,700 --> 01:52:28,900
{\an7}Like someone dropped a bomb.

2539
01:52:28,933 --> 01:52:30,300
{\an7}<i>Why do tornadoes form?</i>

2540
01:52:30,333 --> 01:52:34,966
{\an7}<i>Can we predict them before they
strike, and save more lives?</i>

2541
01:52:35,000 --> 01:52:36,700
{\an8}MAN:
It's a life and death situation.

2542
01:52:36,733 --> 01:52:39,100
{\an8}MAN:
This has never been done before.

2543
01:52:39,133 --> 01:52:40,766
{\an7}We have a relatively
complete look

2544
01:52:40,800 --> 01:52:42,900
{\an7}at the evolution of the tornado.

2545
01:52:42,933 --> 01:52:45,900
{\an7}<i>"Deadliest Tornadoes,"
next time on</i>NOVA.

2546
01:53:06,366 --> 01:53:09,700
{\an7}<i>This</i>NOVA<i>program is available</i> 
<i>on DVD and Blu-ray.</i>

2547
01:53:09,733 --> 01:53:15,233
{\an1}<i>To order, visit shopPBS.org,
or call 1-800-PLAY-PBS.</i>

2548
01:53:15,266 --> 01:53:18,133
{\an1}NOVA<i>is also available
for download on iTunes.</i>