1 00:00:01,733 --> 00:00:02,833 (snorting) 2 00:00:02,866 --> 00:00:03,866 NARRATOR: Horses. 3 00:00:03,900 --> 00:00:06,100 Powerful, 4 00:00:06,133 --> 00:00:07,966 graceful, 5 00:00:08,000 --> 00:00:11,900 and thunderously fast. 6 00:00:11,933 --> 00:00:15,933 No animal has made a greater impact on society 7 00:00:15,966 --> 00:00:18,833 or given humans more freedom and mobility 8 00:00:18,866 --> 00:00:21,500 than horses. 9 00:00:21,533 --> 00:00:24,000 DAVID ANTHONY: The thrill that people still get today 10 00:00:24,033 --> 00:00:27,533 from riding a horse at top speed, 11 00:00:27,566 --> 00:00:29,966 there's nothing like it. 12 00:00:30,000 --> 00:00:31,733 Whereas if you get on the back of a cow... 13 00:00:31,766 --> 00:00:32,800 (mooing) 14 00:00:32,833 --> 00:00:34,733 it's not that great an experience. 15 00:00:34,766 --> 00:00:36,500 ♪ 16 00:00:36,533 --> 00:00:40,566 NARRATOR: Centuries before Egyptians built the pyramids, 17 00:00:40,600 --> 00:00:44,633 Eurasian nomads unlocked the power of horses 18 00:00:44,666 --> 00:00:47,500 and used them to reign supreme 19 00:00:47,533 --> 00:00:51,033 over vast territories of the ancient world. 20 00:00:51,066 --> 00:00:54,666 But how did they do it? 21 00:00:54,700 --> 00:00:57,333 (speaking local language): 22 00:00:57,366 --> 00:01:00,766 NARRATOR: Follow anthropologist Niobe Thompson 23 00:01:00,800 --> 00:01:05,866 as he visits the last of today's horse-riding cultures 24 00:01:05,900 --> 00:01:08,933 and explores archaeological sites 25 00:01:08,966 --> 00:01:12,933 and genetics labs seeking to unlock the mysteries 26 00:01:12,966 --> 00:01:14,833 of the world's first riders. 27 00:01:14,866 --> 00:01:19,900 ESKE WILLERSLEV: The horse transformed what it means being human. 28 00:01:19,933 --> 00:01:24,200 It gave the possibility to explore the world 29 00:01:24,233 --> 00:01:27,533 in a way that had never been possible before. 30 00:01:27,566 --> 00:01:30,933 NARRATOR: But horses could also bring terror 31 00:01:30,966 --> 00:01:34,066 at the hands of brutal raiders, 32 00:01:34,100 --> 00:01:38,000 and even pandemic disease. 33 00:01:38,033 --> 00:01:40,066 ♪ 34 00:01:40,100 --> 00:01:41,333 Time-travel back 35 00:01:41,366 --> 00:01:46,033 to when prehistoric people began capturing wild horses 36 00:01:46,066 --> 00:01:48,333 and rode them like a tide 37 00:01:48,366 --> 00:01:53,000 that would forever change the course of human history. 38 00:01:53,033 --> 00:01:55,966 ♪ 39 00:01:56,000 --> 00:02:00,533 "First Horse Warriors," right now, on "NOVA." 40 00:02:00,566 --> 00:02:04,166 ♪ 41 00:02:06,733 --> 00:02:09,333 Major funding for "NOVA" is provided by the following: 42 00:02:19,933 --> 00:02:22,900 ♪ 43 00:02:22,933 --> 00:02:25,000 (snorting) 44 00:02:26,766 --> 00:02:28,333 (whinnying faintly) 45 00:02:28,366 --> 00:02:31,766 NARRATOR: Horses are magnets for our attention. 46 00:02:31,800 --> 00:02:34,166 They draw us in, 47 00:02:34,200 --> 00:02:37,766 almost demanding we look at them. 48 00:02:37,800 --> 00:02:39,366 (whinnying) 49 00:02:39,400 --> 00:02:43,266 For most people today, just seeing a horse is a rare sight. 50 00:02:43,300 --> 00:02:45,433 ♪ 51 00:02:45,466 --> 00:02:47,533 Perhaps only a couple of times a year, 52 00:02:47,566 --> 00:02:51,166 watching races like the Kentucky Derby. 53 00:02:51,200 --> 00:02:54,033 ♪ 54 00:02:54,066 --> 00:02:57,800 But not so very long ago, horses were everywhere-- 55 00:02:57,833 --> 00:03:01,100 woven into the fabric of our daily existence, 56 00:03:01,133 --> 00:03:04,333 in the countryside 57 00:03:04,366 --> 00:03:06,800 and even in cities. 58 00:03:06,833 --> 00:03:10,333 ANTHONY: The city of New York had tens of thousands of horses 59 00:03:10,366 --> 00:03:12,800 that were doing all the work that trucks do. 60 00:03:12,833 --> 00:03:16,600 And they were also doing all of the work that taxis do today. 61 00:03:16,633 --> 00:03:21,866 NARRATOR: We don't depend on horses anymore, 62 00:03:21,900 --> 00:03:24,466 but few animals have been as important 63 00:03:24,500 --> 00:03:27,266 to the rise of civilization. 64 00:03:27,300 --> 00:03:29,833 For thousands of years, 65 00:03:29,866 --> 00:03:32,233 they were our long-distance vehicles-- 66 00:03:32,266 --> 00:03:37,300 the muscle and speed we needed to master the world. 67 00:03:37,333 --> 00:03:41,766 But how did this unique partnership form? 68 00:03:41,800 --> 00:03:45,933 Who were the first people to unlock the power of horses, 69 00:03:45,966 --> 00:03:48,733 and what happened once they did? 70 00:03:48,766 --> 00:03:50,433 ♪ 71 00:03:50,466 --> 00:03:54,266 Recent discoveries in archaeology and paleontology, 72 00:03:54,300 --> 00:03:56,966 genetics, and even linguistics 73 00:03:57,000 --> 00:04:00,766 are revealing the identity of the world's first riders, 74 00:04:00,800 --> 00:04:03,300 as well as the extraordinary relationship 75 00:04:03,333 --> 00:04:05,200 humans forged with horses 76 00:04:05,233 --> 00:04:10,466 and how that bond would change the very course of history. 77 00:04:11,433 --> 00:04:12,933 (whinnying) 78 00:04:12,966 --> 00:04:17,233 Horses appeared on the scene long before we did, 79 00:04:17,266 --> 00:04:19,066 but surprisingly, looked nothing 80 00:04:19,100 --> 00:04:21,899 like the majestic creatures we see today. 81 00:04:22,633 --> 00:04:24,733 ♪ 82 00:04:24,766 --> 00:04:27,966 55 million years ago, they are small, 83 00:04:28,000 --> 00:04:32,633 and move like agile dogs. 84 00:04:32,666 --> 00:04:35,833 This Dawn Horse is well suited 85 00:04:35,866 --> 00:04:39,933 to the tropical forests covering much of the Earth back then, 86 00:04:39,966 --> 00:04:44,300 living and foraging among the dense foliage. 87 00:04:44,333 --> 00:04:47,166 THOMPSON: It stayed hot for millions of years. 88 00:04:47,200 --> 00:04:51,166 And in all that time, Dawn Horse hardly changed at all. 89 00:04:51,200 --> 00:04:54,400 And then, about 15 million years ago, 90 00:04:54,433 --> 00:04:56,133 the Earth began to cool. 91 00:04:56,166 --> 00:04:59,000 NARRATOR: And when it does, 92 00:04:59,033 --> 00:05:02,566 forested regions distant from the Equator 93 00:05:02,600 --> 00:05:06,900 transform into open plains covered with grasses. 94 00:05:06,933 --> 00:05:11,133 And here, the small, dog-like horse 95 00:05:11,166 --> 00:05:14,000 evolves to avoid predators, 96 00:05:14,033 --> 00:05:19,566 growing sleek, tall, muscled, and fast. 97 00:05:19,600 --> 00:05:23,400 ♪ 98 00:05:23,433 --> 00:05:27,733 Although horses first appear in North America, 99 00:05:27,766 --> 00:05:32,133 as their numbers grow, they migrate across Beringia, 100 00:05:32,166 --> 00:05:36,100 the land bridge that once connected the continents. 101 00:05:36,133 --> 00:05:38,466 ♪ 102 00:05:38,500 --> 00:05:40,733 More than 100,000 years ago, 103 00:05:40,766 --> 00:05:43,466 herds of horses in Europe and Asia 104 00:05:43,500 --> 00:05:47,666 prove a rich source of meat for Stone Age hunters. 105 00:05:47,700 --> 00:05:52,033 ♪ 106 00:05:55,300 --> 00:05:57,100 ANTHONY: People hunted horses. 107 00:05:57,133 --> 00:05:58,666 They are meat on the hoof. 108 00:05:58,700 --> 00:06:01,266 They don't have sharp teeth. 109 00:06:01,300 --> 00:06:03,633 It's not like hunting cave lions, you know? 110 00:06:05,066 --> 00:06:09,366 NARRATOR: And early hunters know how to find migrating horses. 111 00:06:09,400 --> 00:06:12,233 ANTHONY: Horses are relatively predictable animals. 112 00:06:12,266 --> 00:06:15,566 And they tend to follow a regular system 113 00:06:15,600 --> 00:06:18,933 of water holes and grazing places. 114 00:06:20,666 --> 00:06:23,200 NARRATOR: At Solutré in Central France, 115 00:06:23,233 --> 00:06:28,033 there's evidence ancient hunters regularly ambushed horses. 116 00:06:28,066 --> 00:06:30,866 ♪ 117 00:06:30,900 --> 00:06:33,666 SANDRA OLSEN: At Solutré, 118 00:06:33,700 --> 00:06:37,166 for about 20,000 years, people were driving wild horses 119 00:06:37,200 --> 00:06:38,566 into a kind of cul-de-sac 120 00:06:38,600 --> 00:06:41,466 and then killing them with spears for food. 121 00:06:42,700 --> 00:06:45,566 NARRATOR: This chunk of earth excavated at Solutré 122 00:06:45,600 --> 00:06:48,333 is dense with horse bones, 123 00:06:48,366 --> 00:06:50,333 revealing just a tiny fraction 124 00:06:50,366 --> 00:06:52,433 of the tens of thousands of horses 125 00:06:52,466 --> 00:06:57,766 slaughtered here over the centuries. 126 00:06:57,800 --> 00:07:00,933 At Chauvet Cave in Southern France, 127 00:07:00,966 --> 00:07:04,600 the importance of the horse to our Stone Age ancestors 128 00:07:04,633 --> 00:07:08,333 is on clear display. 129 00:07:08,366 --> 00:07:10,466 When you look at this marvelous wall, 130 00:07:10,500 --> 00:07:13,766 you see all the major animals the Stone Age world depicted. 131 00:07:13,800 --> 00:07:17,333 You've got reindeer and mammoths, big cats. 132 00:07:17,366 --> 00:07:20,900 But the horse seems to play the most prominent role. 133 00:07:20,933 --> 00:07:24,133 ♪ 134 00:07:24,166 --> 00:07:26,400 NARRATOR: From their art, many experts believe 135 00:07:26,433 --> 00:07:29,933 ancient humans were making a spiritual connection 136 00:07:29,966 --> 00:07:31,633 to these animals. 137 00:07:31,666 --> 00:07:32,900 ♪ 138 00:07:32,933 --> 00:07:34,566 Despite such reverence, 139 00:07:34,600 --> 00:07:38,066 prehistoric humans may have over-hunted horses, 140 00:07:38,100 --> 00:07:41,100 and by about 10,000 BC, 141 00:07:41,133 --> 00:07:45,433 when a changing climate may have also depleted their numbers, 142 00:07:45,466 --> 00:07:48,300 horse herds became scarce in Europe 143 00:07:48,333 --> 00:07:51,466 and disappeared entirely in the Americas... 144 00:07:53,433 --> 00:07:55,133 where they would not return 145 00:07:55,166 --> 00:08:01,633 until European explorers sailed them back in ships. 146 00:08:01,666 --> 00:08:05,400 But on the grassy steppe lands of Central Eurasia, 147 00:08:05,433 --> 00:08:11,100 the descendants of horses that migrated from America flourish. 148 00:08:11,133 --> 00:08:14,333 And it's here that many experts believe 149 00:08:14,366 --> 00:08:19,566 prehistoric humans eventually discover how to ride them. 150 00:08:19,600 --> 00:08:21,700 ♪ 151 00:08:21,733 --> 00:08:25,666 The steppe refers to this long grasslands plain 152 00:08:25,700 --> 00:08:30,600 stretching over 5,000 miles from the edge of today's Europe 153 00:08:30,633 --> 00:08:33,766 all the way to Mongolia in Asia. 154 00:08:33,799 --> 00:08:36,766 It's a harsh environment-- 155 00:08:36,799 --> 00:08:40,566 cold in the winter, hot in the summer, 156 00:08:40,600 --> 00:08:44,166 and in many places, too dry for agriculture. 157 00:08:44,200 --> 00:08:47,200 But you can pasture animals, 158 00:08:47,233 --> 00:08:52,300 and these Kazakh herders are following in the footsteps 159 00:08:52,333 --> 00:08:54,600 of their nomadic ancestors, 160 00:08:54,633 --> 00:08:56,966 who may have been among the first people 161 00:08:57,000 --> 00:08:59,800 to capture and ride horses. 162 00:08:59,833 --> 00:09:01,500 (speaking local language) 163 00:09:01,533 --> 00:09:04,900 NARRATOR: And Niobe has come here to see what he can learn from them. 164 00:09:04,933 --> 00:09:06,100 (speaking local language): 165 00:09:06,133 --> 00:09:07,166 (speaking local language): 166 00:09:10,000 --> 00:09:13,000 NARRATOR: Raising sheep, goats, and cattle 167 00:09:13,033 --> 00:09:15,833 is a rugged, outdoor existence. 168 00:09:15,866 --> 00:09:18,866 But horses make herding easier-- 169 00:09:18,900 --> 00:09:23,166 especially when moving grazing animals to new pasture. 170 00:09:23,200 --> 00:09:26,600 And Niobe pitches in. 171 00:09:27,833 --> 00:09:29,400 It was surely a big change 172 00:09:29,433 --> 00:09:32,300 to turn wild and wary steppe animals 173 00:09:32,333 --> 00:09:36,000 into the working horses we see today. 174 00:09:36,033 --> 00:09:39,533 So who were the first people to tame wild horses, 175 00:09:39,566 --> 00:09:42,566 and how did they actually do it? 176 00:09:42,600 --> 00:09:44,700 ♪ 177 00:09:44,733 --> 00:09:46,700 5,500 years ago, 178 00:09:46,733 --> 00:09:50,533 the people who lived at this site in Kazakhstan 179 00:09:50,566 --> 00:09:55,100 may have been the first culture to master the horse. 180 00:09:55,133 --> 00:09:59,200 The site was discovered 40 years ago 181 00:09:59,233 --> 00:10:01,700 when Russian archaeologist Victor Zaibert 182 00:10:01,733 --> 00:10:04,000 noticed circles in the earth 183 00:10:04,033 --> 00:10:07,166 that turned out to be large houses 184 00:10:07,200 --> 00:10:12,900 belonging to a steppe people anthropologists call the Botai. 185 00:10:12,933 --> 00:10:16,533 Prior to creating this village, 186 00:10:16,566 --> 00:10:19,300 the Botai are strictly nomadic, 187 00:10:19,333 --> 00:10:23,433 living off the land, foraging and hunting, 188 00:10:23,466 --> 00:10:25,666 and eating what they could find. 189 00:10:25,700 --> 00:10:28,766 ♪ 190 00:10:28,800 --> 00:10:33,533 But then they settle down and change their lifestyle. 191 00:10:35,600 --> 00:10:38,900 By the vast number of horse bones uncovered at the site, 192 00:10:38,933 --> 00:10:43,700 they began eating horsemeat almost exclusively. 193 00:10:43,733 --> 00:10:45,200 ♪ 194 00:10:45,233 --> 00:10:46,366 But is eating horses 195 00:10:46,400 --> 00:10:49,933 the only use the Botai had for these animals? 196 00:10:49,966 --> 00:10:53,133 Or could they be riding them, as well? 197 00:10:53,166 --> 00:11:01,033 That question has roiled the academic community for decades. 198 00:11:01,066 --> 00:11:03,333 Almost got a bevel on this side, too. 199 00:11:01,066 --> 00:11:03,333 This is the same guy? 200 00:11:03,366 --> 00:11:05,500 NARRATOR: Anthropologists David Anthony 201 00:11:05,533 --> 00:11:07,333 and his wife, Dorcas Brown... 202 00:11:07,366 --> 00:11:08,566 ANTHONY: There's the skull... 203 00:11:08,600 --> 00:11:09,700 NARRATOR: ...have long maintained 204 00:11:09,733 --> 00:11:11,666 the Botai were among the first people 205 00:11:11,700 --> 00:11:14,366 to capture and ride horses. 206 00:11:14,400 --> 00:11:16,433 And they've pieced together 207 00:11:16,466 --> 00:11:19,800 what they believe is convincing evidence 208 00:11:19,833 --> 00:11:22,933 by looking for wear marks a riding bit might make 209 00:11:22,966 --> 00:11:25,600 on their teeth. 210 00:11:25,633 --> 00:11:28,366 THOMPSON: A bit is part of the bridle or reins. 211 00:11:28,400 --> 00:11:30,966 They can be made of leather or metal, 212 00:11:31,000 --> 00:11:32,533 and they go in the horse's mouth 213 00:11:32,566 --> 00:11:34,066 just here. 214 00:11:34,100 --> 00:11:36,133 So when I apply pressure through the reins, 215 00:11:36,166 --> 00:11:39,166 the bit tells the horse what I want it to do. 216 00:11:39,200 --> 00:11:41,000 ♪ 217 00:11:41,033 --> 00:11:44,733 NARRATOR: And David Anthony believes he's found evidence of bit wear 218 00:11:44,766 --> 00:11:48,200 in the jaws of Botai horses. 219 00:11:48,233 --> 00:11:52,500 ANTHONY: There is a gap between the molar row and the incisors. 220 00:11:52,533 --> 00:11:55,100 And if you put a bit in the horse's mouth, 221 00:11:55,133 --> 00:11:57,900 it sits on top of very sensitive tissue. 222 00:11:57,933 --> 00:12:00,766 And so by pulling on the bit on one side, 223 00:12:00,800 --> 00:12:03,733 you pull the bit down against the gum, 224 00:12:03,766 --> 00:12:06,600 and the horse will turn its head in order to avoid that pressure. 225 00:12:06,633 --> 00:12:08,100 You pull the rein on the other side, 226 00:12:08,133 --> 00:12:11,966 and the horse will turn its head to avoid that pressure. 227 00:12:12,000 --> 00:12:14,066 And that's how a creature as puny as a human 228 00:12:14,100 --> 00:12:17,766 can control an animal the size of a horse. 229 00:12:17,800 --> 00:12:19,800 NARRATOR: But a horse doesn't want a bit 230 00:12:19,833 --> 00:12:23,900 constantly bearing down on its gums. 231 00:12:23,933 --> 00:12:25,600 ANTHONY: The horse can use its tongue 232 00:12:25,633 --> 00:12:29,433 to push the bit up and put it onto these teeth 233 00:12:29,466 --> 00:12:31,100 to get it off of the soft tissue, 234 00:12:31,133 --> 00:12:32,733 where it can't hurt them anymore. 235 00:12:32,766 --> 00:12:33,966 And then in this position, 236 00:12:34,000 --> 00:12:36,566 if the horse grasps the bit very firmly 237 00:12:36,600 --> 00:12:38,600 between the lower teeth and the upper teeth, 238 00:12:38,633 --> 00:12:41,666 it can keep the bit off of its tongue and gums. 239 00:12:41,700 --> 00:12:43,500 So we were looking for wear 240 00:12:43,533 --> 00:12:46,266 on the front part of the tooth here. 241 00:12:46,300 --> 00:12:49,166 NARRATOR: They examined hundreds of samples, 242 00:12:49,200 --> 00:12:51,200 looking for evidence of bit wear... 243 00:12:51,233 --> 00:12:52,666 BROWN: You can see that it's broken. 244 00:12:52,700 --> 00:12:54,666 He really, he chewed all the way through this bit. 245 00:12:54,700 --> 00:12:57,733 NARRATOR: ...and feel confident they found it. 246 00:12:57,766 --> 00:13:01,433 ANTHONY: This is a cast of a tooth from the site of Botai 247 00:13:01,466 --> 00:13:03,866 that's 5,000 years old. 248 00:13:03,900 --> 00:13:07,266 This is the tooth of a modern horse that's been bitted. 249 00:13:07,300 --> 00:13:11,933 And both of them have wear on this front cusp right here. 250 00:13:11,966 --> 00:13:13,633 ♪ 251 00:13:13,666 --> 00:13:15,933 NARRATOR: Despite this apparent evidence, 252 00:13:15,966 --> 00:13:19,833 not every expert believed Anthony was correct. 253 00:13:19,866 --> 00:13:21,000 ANTHONY: There are people 254 00:13:21,033 --> 00:13:22,066 who did not believe 255 00:13:22,100 --> 00:13:23,933 that the marks that we saw on the teeth 256 00:13:23,966 --> 00:13:25,066 were caused by a bit, 257 00:13:25,100 --> 00:13:28,400 because those kinds of features can be caused 258 00:13:28,433 --> 00:13:31,500 by natural malocclusion in horses. 259 00:13:31,533 --> 00:13:33,900 ♪ 260 00:13:33,933 --> 00:13:36,200 NARRATOR: Beside refuting the bit evidence, 261 00:13:36,233 --> 00:13:40,333 other experts argue that images of humans riding horses 262 00:13:40,366 --> 00:13:41,800 or chariots 263 00:13:41,833 --> 00:13:45,600 do not appear until about 2000 BC, 264 00:13:45,633 --> 00:13:49,333 or 1,500 years after the Botai. 265 00:13:49,366 --> 00:13:52,866 If the Botai had become riders, 266 00:13:52,900 --> 00:13:55,866 surely this would have been depicted in art. 267 00:13:55,900 --> 00:13:57,100 This is the same guy? 268 00:13:57,133 --> 00:13:59,000 NARRATOR: So are Anthony and Brown correct 269 00:13:59,033 --> 00:14:03,500 about teeth wear as evidence for riding? 270 00:14:05,900 --> 00:14:08,166 Archaeologists digging at Botai village 271 00:14:08,200 --> 00:14:10,966 have been hoping to find other evidence 272 00:14:11,000 --> 00:14:13,633 that the Botai had become riders. 273 00:14:13,666 --> 00:14:17,266 ♪ 274 00:14:17,300 --> 00:14:20,166 They know the people are smoking, cooking, and eating 275 00:14:20,200 --> 00:14:22,600 vast quantities of horsemeat. 276 00:14:22,633 --> 00:14:26,933 And they found large concentrations of horse dung 277 00:14:26,966 --> 00:14:29,800 and holes from fence posts, 278 00:14:29,833 --> 00:14:33,400 indicating the Botai are keeping horses in corrals-- 279 00:14:33,433 --> 00:14:36,500 something David Anthony believes makes sense 280 00:14:36,533 --> 00:14:41,066 for a culture that had become dependent on horses. 281 00:14:41,100 --> 00:14:43,466 It's easier to kill a horse in a corral 282 00:14:43,500 --> 00:14:45,533 than it is to find the horses, 283 00:14:45,566 --> 00:14:49,233 go out to the place where you have to ambush them, 284 00:14:49,266 --> 00:14:50,266 kill them there, 285 00:14:50,300 --> 00:14:54,266 and lug it back to your settlement site. 286 00:14:54,300 --> 00:14:55,733 It would be a lot more convenient 287 00:14:55,766 --> 00:14:57,200 if you just had horses in a corral, 288 00:14:57,233 --> 00:14:59,566 and you could go out and get one whenever you wanted a meal. 289 00:14:59,600 --> 00:15:03,466 NARRATOR: Beside serving as a food larder, 290 00:15:03,500 --> 00:15:05,400 the corrals could also mean 291 00:15:05,433 --> 00:15:08,766 the Botai are breeding and domesticating horses, 292 00:15:08,800 --> 00:15:12,966 like other cultures are doing with cattle, sheep, and goats-- 293 00:15:13,000 --> 00:15:17,666 living off these animals for milk, meat, wool, 294 00:15:17,700 --> 00:15:20,600 and other products. 295 00:15:20,633 --> 00:15:22,633 If the Botai are domesticating horses 296 00:15:22,666 --> 00:15:24,633 for the same reasons, 297 00:15:24,666 --> 00:15:27,500 this would naturally bring greater interaction 298 00:15:27,533 --> 00:15:29,533 and familiarity, 299 00:15:29,566 --> 00:15:32,600 making attempts to ride them much easier. 300 00:15:32,633 --> 00:15:34,166 ♪ 301 00:15:34,200 --> 00:15:36,366 And archaeologist Alan Outram 302 00:15:36,400 --> 00:15:40,700 set out to prove the Botai had domesticated horses 303 00:15:40,733 --> 00:15:43,266 by focusing on milk. 304 00:15:43,300 --> 00:15:46,066 OUTRAM: If people could milk cattle very early on, 305 00:15:46,100 --> 00:15:47,600 then people that were living off horse products, 306 00:15:47,633 --> 00:15:50,233 why would they not also milk horses? 307 00:15:50,266 --> 00:15:53,000 And if you've got horse milking, 308 00:15:53,033 --> 00:15:55,033 you've got a smoking gun for domestication, 309 00:15:55,066 --> 00:15:57,866 because no one's going to argue with you 310 00:15:57,900 --> 00:16:01,266 that people are running after wild horses to milk them. 311 00:16:03,133 --> 00:16:06,300 NARRATOR: If the Botai had been milking tame horses, 312 00:16:06,333 --> 00:16:11,300 these broken pottery vessels may have once contained their milk. 313 00:16:12,233 --> 00:16:14,400 So Outram brings them to this lab 314 00:16:14,433 --> 00:16:15,933 at the University of Bristol. 315 00:16:15,966 --> 00:16:17,766 ...be a drop in horse populations... 316 00:16:17,800 --> 00:16:20,000 NARRATOR: He wants chemist Richard Evershed 317 00:16:20,033 --> 00:16:23,300 to use a process called an isotopic analysis... 318 00:16:23,333 --> 00:16:26,100 Be interesting to know what this little blip is down here. 319 00:16:26,133 --> 00:16:28,966 NARRATOR: ...to see if he can find residues of milk fat 320 00:16:29,000 --> 00:16:31,733 still clinging to the pottery, 321 00:16:31,766 --> 00:16:35,400 even after 5,000 years buried in the ground. 322 00:16:35,433 --> 00:16:37,233 EVERSHED: The basis of what we do is to look 323 00:16:37,266 --> 00:16:40,300 at the organic compounds, the fats, 324 00:16:40,333 --> 00:16:43,766 that have absorbed into the wall of the pot. 325 00:16:43,800 --> 00:16:45,633 And actually, they are pretty tough to extract. 326 00:16:45,666 --> 00:16:47,733 And we've had to develop some methods 327 00:16:47,766 --> 00:16:50,366 to actually open up the structure. 328 00:16:50,400 --> 00:16:54,333 ♪ 329 00:16:54,366 --> 00:16:58,000 NARRATOR: At first, it's all handwork. 330 00:16:58,033 --> 00:17:00,600 EVERSHED: We drill off the surface of the pot 331 00:17:00,633 --> 00:17:03,900 to reveal a, sort of a fresh ceramic surface. 332 00:17:03,933 --> 00:17:07,200 And then we literally break off a small piece, 333 00:17:07,233 --> 00:17:09,800 about two grams, 334 00:17:09,833 --> 00:17:12,300 and we put it into a pestle and mortar, 335 00:17:12,333 --> 00:17:15,133 and we literally grind it to a powder. 336 00:17:15,166 --> 00:17:16,800 We pound it to a fine powder. 337 00:17:16,833 --> 00:17:21,833 And what that is doing is opening up the pores in the pot. 338 00:17:21,866 --> 00:17:23,966 NARRATOR: This will hopefully free traces 339 00:17:24,000 --> 00:17:26,300 of specific chemical fingerprints, 340 00:17:26,333 --> 00:17:27,833 called isotopes, 341 00:17:27,866 --> 00:17:32,066 of any organic substance the pottery once contained, 342 00:17:32,100 --> 00:17:33,800 including milk fat. 343 00:17:33,833 --> 00:17:36,166 (machine whirring) 344 00:17:36,200 --> 00:17:38,900 The powder is then liquefied 345 00:17:38,933 --> 00:17:42,966 and placed into this machine 346 00:17:43,000 --> 00:17:45,166 that heats it and analyzes the chemical signature 347 00:17:45,200 --> 00:17:47,633 of the gas vapors being released 348 00:17:47,666 --> 00:17:50,400 to see if those signatures match 349 00:17:50,433 --> 00:17:55,566 the ones known to come from horse fat. 350 00:17:55,600 --> 00:17:56,933 So these are the results of the isotope analysis. 351 00:17:56,966 --> 00:17:57,966 And you can see 352 00:17:58,000 --> 00:17:59,700 these two major peaks. 353 00:17:59,733 --> 00:18:00,966 And these are the fatty acids 354 00:18:01,000 --> 00:18:03,333 that tell us we've got an animal fat. 355 00:18:03,366 --> 00:18:04,833 NARRATOR: A good start. 356 00:18:04,866 --> 00:18:09,333 But evidence of fat doesn't necessarily mean milk fat-- 357 00:18:09,366 --> 00:18:11,400 it could be carcass fat. 358 00:18:11,433 --> 00:18:14,366 EVERSHED: We can't say from just looking at these peaks 359 00:18:14,400 --> 00:18:16,133 exactly what type of fat we've got. 360 00:18:16,166 --> 00:18:20,300 NARRATOR: And since the Botai are eating horses... 361 00:18:20,333 --> 00:18:22,333 EVERSHED: And if you're cooking meat in a pot, 362 00:18:22,366 --> 00:18:24,900 you will obviously get the deposition of a lot of fat 363 00:18:24,933 --> 00:18:26,666 as the meat is cooked. 364 00:18:26,700 --> 00:18:28,566 So that didn't work. 365 00:18:28,600 --> 00:18:29,733 Yeah. 366 00:18:30,866 --> 00:18:32,833 NARRATOR: They go back to the drawing board, 367 00:18:32,866 --> 00:18:36,066 realizing they need a way to clearly distinguish 368 00:18:36,100 --> 00:18:38,700 milk fat from carcass fat. 369 00:18:40,266 --> 00:18:42,166 And the best way to do that 370 00:18:42,200 --> 00:18:45,800 would be to go to the original Botai environment in Kazakhstan 371 00:18:45,833 --> 00:18:49,666 and gather samples of mare's milk. 372 00:18:49,700 --> 00:18:52,933 The grasses mares eat today 373 00:18:52,966 --> 00:18:56,466 should be composed of elements like hydrogen or oxygen 374 00:18:56,500 --> 00:18:59,333 that are similar to those their ancient ancestors ate. 375 00:18:59,366 --> 00:19:01,800 ♪ 376 00:19:01,833 --> 00:19:03,366 EVERSHED: It's the "you are what you eat" principle. 377 00:19:03,400 --> 00:19:06,300 So you're inheriting the isotope signatures 378 00:19:06,333 --> 00:19:08,000 of different foodstuffs that you're eating. 379 00:19:08,033 --> 00:19:11,600 NARRATOR: In spring, when mares are nursing, 380 00:19:11,633 --> 00:19:15,066 their milk absorbs elevated levels 381 00:19:15,100 --> 00:19:17,966 of a hydrogen isotope called deuterium 382 00:19:18,000 --> 00:19:19,800 that's in water and grasses. 383 00:19:19,833 --> 00:19:23,800 And this elevation will only be in the milk fat, 384 00:19:23,833 --> 00:19:27,066 not in their carcass fat. 385 00:19:27,100 --> 00:19:30,133 When the team analyzes the modern milk samples, 386 00:19:30,166 --> 00:19:33,066 they find elevated deuterium peaks 387 00:19:33,100 --> 00:19:37,733 that match perfectly those from the Botai pottery. 388 00:19:37,766 --> 00:19:42,033 This confirms Alan Outram is right: 389 00:19:42,066 --> 00:19:47,400 The Botai had been milking domesticated horses. 390 00:19:47,433 --> 00:19:49,833 OUTRAM: I don't think anyone can seriously argue 391 00:19:49,866 --> 00:19:53,700 that you haven't got decent control of animals 392 00:19:53,733 --> 00:19:54,933 if they're being milked. 393 00:19:54,966 --> 00:19:58,833 NARRATOR: But it takes practice to milk a horse, 394 00:19:58,866 --> 00:20:02,200 as Niobe discovers. 395 00:20:02,233 --> 00:20:05,900 Milking a horse is all about tricking the horse. 396 00:20:05,933 --> 00:20:06,900 So what happens is, 397 00:20:06,933 --> 00:20:08,733 someone brings a foal in, 398 00:20:08,766 --> 00:20:11,000 the foal sucks the milk from the teats, 399 00:20:11,033 --> 00:20:12,766 the milk falls, 400 00:20:12,800 --> 00:20:13,900 and then they pull the foal away quickly, 401 00:20:13,933 --> 00:20:16,500 and someone rushes in and milks the horse. 402 00:20:16,533 --> 00:20:19,466 As soon as the mare knows that it's not the foal, 403 00:20:19,500 --> 00:20:20,766 or suspects something, something's different, 404 00:20:20,800 --> 00:20:22,933 the milk dries up. 405 00:20:22,966 --> 00:20:24,133 The mare sensed 406 00:20:24,166 --> 00:20:25,300 that I didn't really know what I was doing, 407 00:20:25,333 --> 00:20:27,833 and as soon as I got a bit of milk out, 408 00:20:27,866 --> 00:20:28,833 the teats dried up. 409 00:20:28,866 --> 00:20:30,933 They had to bring the foal back in. 410 00:20:30,966 --> 00:20:32,900 It's really hard. 411 00:20:32,933 --> 00:20:34,133 (chuckling): You know, it's just... 412 00:20:34,166 --> 00:20:35,800 Just a little bit. 413 00:20:35,833 --> 00:20:37,400 (all laughing) 414 00:20:37,433 --> 00:20:40,833 NARRATOR: Only horses used to a human touch 415 00:20:40,866 --> 00:20:46,766 would have allowed the Botai to milk, tame, and ride them. 416 00:20:46,800 --> 00:20:50,800 OLSEN: And so by the time you start to pile all of this evidence on, 417 00:20:50,833 --> 00:20:53,233 the people living in sedentary villages, 418 00:20:53,266 --> 00:20:56,000 milking the mares, eating the horsemeat, 419 00:20:56,033 --> 00:20:58,700 it's fairly evident 420 00:20:58,733 --> 00:21:01,033 that you have domesticated horses there. 421 00:21:01,066 --> 00:21:05,566 NARRATOR: And gathering large herds of domesticated horses 422 00:21:05,600 --> 00:21:07,833 would be extremely difficult 423 00:21:07,866 --> 00:21:10,833 without horse riders to herd them. 424 00:21:10,866 --> 00:21:13,866 ANTHONY: If you ask people who manage horses today, 425 00:21:13,900 --> 00:21:17,533 "How can you manage horse herds without riding horses?", 426 00:21:17,566 --> 00:21:20,066 they laugh at you. 427 00:21:20,100 --> 00:21:21,900 Of course you have to be on horseback 428 00:21:21,933 --> 00:21:24,933 to manage herds of horses. 429 00:21:24,966 --> 00:21:26,400 ♪ 430 00:21:26,433 --> 00:21:28,533 NARRATOR: So despite their doubters, 431 00:21:28,566 --> 00:21:32,533 all the evidence points to Anthony and Brown being correct. 432 00:21:32,566 --> 00:21:36,733 The Botai were riding horses. 433 00:21:38,966 --> 00:21:42,966 But how did the Botai convince large, wild animals 434 00:21:43,000 --> 00:21:46,433 to let them climb on their backs? 435 00:21:46,466 --> 00:21:49,300 BROWN: You choose the docile animals. 436 00:21:49,333 --> 00:21:52,300 So you would approach a horse, 437 00:21:52,333 --> 00:21:54,233 and if it ran away, you didn't get it. 438 00:21:54,266 --> 00:21:55,900 But if you approached a horse, 439 00:21:55,933 --> 00:21:59,133 and it was sort of curious and interested, 440 00:21:59,166 --> 00:22:01,333 then you could then begin with that horse 441 00:22:01,366 --> 00:22:03,000 and then go, build on from there, 442 00:22:03,033 --> 00:22:04,400 build a whole herd from there. 443 00:22:04,433 --> 00:22:06,133 (whinnying) 444 00:22:06,166 --> 00:22:12,100 ♪ 445 00:22:12,133 --> 00:22:13,733 Oh, I think the first riders 446 00:22:13,766 --> 00:22:16,633 were getting bucked off pretty fast. 447 00:22:16,666 --> 00:22:19,066 ♪ 448 00:22:19,100 --> 00:22:21,233 But once they figured it out, 449 00:22:21,266 --> 00:22:23,966 why not go long distances? 450 00:22:24,000 --> 00:22:25,666 Especially on the steppes, you know? 451 00:22:25,700 --> 00:22:28,300 You'd always wonder what's over that next horizon. 452 00:22:28,333 --> 00:22:30,833 I think that's what was going on. 453 00:22:30,866 --> 00:22:33,333 They wondered what was past that next horizon. 454 00:22:33,366 --> 00:22:37,800 ♪ 455 00:22:37,833 --> 00:22:39,533 NARRATOR: Riding. 456 00:22:39,566 --> 00:22:42,866 The Botai's prey has become their companion. 457 00:22:42,900 --> 00:22:46,566 ♪ 458 00:22:49,633 --> 00:22:51,366 Riding this magical creature 459 00:22:51,400 --> 00:22:55,266 must have felt like breaking a law of nature. 460 00:22:55,300 --> 00:23:00,033 Now the Botai can herd more animals 461 00:23:00,066 --> 00:23:03,333 and trade with distant cultures. 462 00:23:03,366 --> 00:23:04,533 Their horses prime them 463 00:23:04,566 --> 00:23:09,433 to become the most dominant force on the steppe. 464 00:23:09,466 --> 00:23:11,300 ANTHONY: You would expect the Botai people, 465 00:23:11,333 --> 00:23:13,100 with the advantage of horseback riding, 466 00:23:13,133 --> 00:23:14,533 to have really thrived. 467 00:23:14,566 --> 00:23:17,933 And it looks like they did great. 468 00:23:17,966 --> 00:23:20,933 They had these large conglomerations of people 469 00:23:20,966 --> 00:23:22,200 living in these big settlements. 470 00:23:22,233 --> 00:23:25,500 They were feeding themselves magnificently. 471 00:23:25,533 --> 00:23:29,800 But after 3000 BC, they pretty much disappeared. 472 00:23:29,833 --> 00:23:33,166 ♪ 473 00:23:34,566 --> 00:23:38,266 NARRATOR: What became of the Botai and their horses? 474 00:23:40,300 --> 00:23:42,533 Archaeologists have found little evidence 475 00:23:42,566 --> 00:23:45,133 or even human remains in the village 476 00:23:45,166 --> 00:23:49,033 that might help them understand their fate. 477 00:23:53,633 --> 00:23:57,600 And that's what makes this discovery by Alan Outram's team 478 00:23:57,633 --> 00:24:00,966 so important: 479 00:24:01,000 --> 00:24:05,966 a fairly intact Botai skeleton. 480 00:24:06,000 --> 00:24:09,000 I cannot stress how rare human remains are at this site. 481 00:24:10,300 --> 00:24:14,533 NARRATOR: Their hope is that these bones will yield DNA 482 00:24:14,566 --> 00:24:17,966 that geneticists can trace to later populations 483 00:24:18,000 --> 00:24:22,400 that may have absorbed the Botai and become their heirs. 484 00:24:24,366 --> 00:24:28,166 Recovering ancient DNA is extremely difficult, 485 00:24:28,200 --> 00:24:31,633 but Danish geneticist Eske Willerslev 486 00:24:31,666 --> 00:24:33,266 has earned a global reputation 487 00:24:33,300 --> 00:24:36,900 for finding and sequencing the genomes 488 00:24:36,933 --> 00:24:40,233 of our oldest ancestors. 489 00:24:40,266 --> 00:24:42,333 And he's come to Botai village 490 00:24:42,366 --> 00:24:47,966 to see if this rare skeleton looks like it could yield DNA 491 00:24:48,000 --> 00:24:50,666 that has survived the ravages of time. 492 00:24:50,700 --> 00:24:53,033 WILLERSLEV: Hey, guys. 493 00:24:53,066 --> 00:24:55,266 Hey, so you found a human whole? OUTRAM: Yes. 494 00:24:55,300 --> 00:24:58,333 But you have no idea how much of the skeleton is there, huh? 495 00:24:58,366 --> 00:24:59,700 OUTRAM: We don't yet. 496 00:24:59,733 --> 00:25:01,033 There are quite a lot of bone fragments all around. 497 00:25:01,066 --> 00:25:02,066 Some of them are horse bones. 498 00:25:02,100 --> 00:25:03,533 Yeah, yeah. 499 00:25:03,566 --> 00:25:06,800 NARRATOR: Eske is impatient to get specimens back to his lab. 500 00:25:06,833 --> 00:25:09,733 But he'll have to wait for the meticulous process 501 00:25:09,766 --> 00:25:13,533 of uncovering fragile bones from the packed earth-- 502 00:25:13,566 --> 00:25:16,100 and then hope for the best. 503 00:25:16,133 --> 00:25:18,966 WILLERSLEV: We are getting DNA out of a lot of specimens 504 00:25:19,000 --> 00:25:20,933 that we, six, seven years ago, 505 00:25:20,966 --> 00:25:23,500 didn't think you could get anything out of 506 00:25:23,533 --> 00:25:24,700 whatsoever, right? 507 00:25:24,733 --> 00:25:25,766 And now they're working. 508 00:25:25,800 --> 00:25:28,233 So, I mean, it's really hard to predict 509 00:25:28,266 --> 00:25:29,733 whether the specimen will work or not, 510 00:25:29,766 --> 00:25:31,466 but I'm pretty optimistic. 511 00:25:31,500 --> 00:25:33,833 WILLERSLEV: When you have cleared the head, 512 00:25:33,866 --> 00:25:36,033 can we kind of remove the lower jaw 513 00:25:36,066 --> 00:25:37,900 to get a tooth? 514 00:25:37,933 --> 00:25:39,600 I think the lower jaw will come away all right. 515 00:25:39,633 --> 00:25:40,533 All by itself, huh? 516 00:25:40,566 --> 00:25:41,566 Yeah. 517 00:25:40,566 --> 00:25:41,566 Yeah. 518 00:25:41,600 --> 00:25:43,133 ♪ 519 00:25:43,166 --> 00:25:45,233 NARRATOR: Eske wants a tooth, 520 00:25:45,266 --> 00:25:47,300 because the DNA inside 521 00:25:47,333 --> 00:25:51,133 is protected by an outer coating of enamel. 522 00:25:51,166 --> 00:25:53,633 The team gives him one. 523 00:25:54,800 --> 00:25:56,466 Wow, okay, this is beautiful. 524 00:25:56,500 --> 00:25:58,033 This is beautiful. 525 00:25:56,500 --> 00:25:58,033 This is beautiful. 526 00:25:58,066 --> 00:26:00,033 Oh, this is fantastic. 527 00:26:00,066 --> 00:26:02,333 ♪ 528 00:26:02,366 --> 00:26:03,333 (softly): Yeah! 529 00:26:03,366 --> 00:26:05,366 WILLERSLEV: Amazing, yes. 530 00:26:05,400 --> 00:26:06,300 Thank you very much. 531 00:26:06,333 --> 00:26:07,600 You're very welcome. 532 00:26:06,333 --> 00:26:07,600 Yeah, yeah. 533 00:26:07,633 --> 00:26:09,000 NARRATOR: And there's something else. 534 00:26:09,033 --> 00:26:11,033 Oh, hey, there's a petrous there, right? 535 00:26:11,066 --> 00:26:12,866 Yeah. 536 00:26:11,066 --> 00:26:12,866 Wow! 537 00:26:12,900 --> 00:26:15,166 NARRATOR: The petrous-- 538 00:26:15,200 --> 00:26:18,600 a small bone that's part of the skull near the inner ear-- 539 00:26:18,633 --> 00:26:22,133 is a fortuitous find. 540 00:26:22,166 --> 00:26:27,133 WILLERSLEV: So the petrous bone is the most dense bone in the human body. 541 00:26:27,166 --> 00:26:29,966 Therefore the DNA preservation is better 542 00:26:30,000 --> 00:26:32,100 than in other parts of, you can say, 543 00:26:32,133 --> 00:26:34,100 the post-skeleton material. 544 00:26:34,133 --> 00:26:36,266 ♪ 545 00:26:36,300 --> 00:26:38,066 NARRATOR: After months of work, 546 00:26:38,100 --> 00:26:41,566 Eske and his team identified the genetic signature 547 00:26:41,600 --> 00:26:44,633 of the Botai villager. 548 00:26:44,666 --> 00:26:47,733 They expected to find traces of his genome 549 00:26:47,766 --> 00:26:49,500 in later steppe cultures. 550 00:26:49,533 --> 00:26:53,133 But stunningly, they couldn't find it. 551 00:26:53,166 --> 00:26:55,233 WILLERSLEV: The Botai people, if you want, 552 00:26:55,266 --> 00:26:59,533 as far as we know, haven't left any direct descendants. 553 00:26:59,566 --> 00:27:01,600 ♪ 554 00:27:01,633 --> 00:27:05,166 NARRATOR: Despite their resources and well-established community, 555 00:27:05,200 --> 00:27:07,966 the Botai somehow died out. 556 00:27:08,000 --> 00:27:11,066 WILLERSLEV: It's kind of tragic irony 557 00:27:11,100 --> 00:27:15,200 that they do something extremely challenging-- 558 00:27:15,233 --> 00:27:18,033 they domesticated the horse, 559 00:27:18,066 --> 00:27:20,900 probably one of the most influential events 560 00:27:20,933 --> 00:27:22,933 in human history. 561 00:27:22,966 --> 00:27:24,266 But they don't take over the world 562 00:27:24,300 --> 00:27:26,966 with this new, major power they have. 563 00:27:27,000 --> 00:27:30,633 I mean, they become a dead end, right? 564 00:27:30,666 --> 00:27:32,566 They don't have an impact. 565 00:27:32,600 --> 00:27:34,166 ♪ 566 00:27:34,200 --> 00:27:35,633 NARRATOR: As it turns out, 567 00:27:35,666 --> 00:27:39,266 we know more about the fate of Botai horses 568 00:27:39,300 --> 00:27:40,833 than the Botai people. 569 00:27:42,666 --> 00:27:45,200 French geneticist Ludovic Orlando 570 00:27:45,233 --> 00:27:47,833 has also come to Botai village 571 00:27:47,866 --> 00:27:50,866 to collect bones for DNA sampling-- 572 00:27:50,900 --> 00:27:55,066 in his case, horse bones, not human ones. 573 00:27:55,100 --> 00:27:57,533 If these are indeed the remains 574 00:27:57,566 --> 00:28:00,400 of the world's first domesticated horses, 575 00:28:00,433 --> 00:28:03,533 then Orlando believes it's very likely 576 00:28:03,566 --> 00:28:06,166 their genetic signature will have passed on 577 00:28:06,200 --> 00:28:10,266 to all domesticated horses living today. 578 00:28:13,866 --> 00:28:16,066 He took samples back to his lab 579 00:28:16,100 --> 00:28:18,566 to see if his theory was correct. 580 00:28:18,600 --> 00:28:22,000 ORLANDO: I was expecting the first population of domestic horses 581 00:28:22,033 --> 00:28:23,100 to have been the source 582 00:28:23,133 --> 00:28:26,933 of all and every possible domestic horse 583 00:28:26,966 --> 00:28:28,500 that lives on the planet today. 584 00:28:28,533 --> 00:28:31,566 NARRATOR: But when he ran the tests, 585 00:28:31,600 --> 00:28:34,500 the results came as a shock. 586 00:28:34,533 --> 00:28:38,400 I have no way to express how wrong I've been, actually. 587 00:28:40,900 --> 00:28:44,066 NARRATOR: When Orlando sequenced the Botai horse genome 588 00:28:44,100 --> 00:28:47,433 and looked for its signature in modern horses, 589 00:28:47,466 --> 00:28:48,866 he couldn't find it, 590 00:28:48,900 --> 00:28:52,500 as if the Botai horses, like their masters, 591 00:28:52,533 --> 00:28:54,633 had disappeared. 592 00:28:54,666 --> 00:28:58,633 But then, in a surprising twist, 593 00:28:58,666 --> 00:29:03,400 he found them in the least likely horses imaginable. 594 00:29:03,433 --> 00:29:06,100 The big surprise is that it's the Przewalski horse. 595 00:29:06,133 --> 00:29:08,533 (whinnying) 596 00:29:08,566 --> 00:29:10,500 NARRATOR: The Przewalski horse. 597 00:29:10,533 --> 00:29:13,733 For centuries, these unique-looking horses 598 00:29:13,766 --> 00:29:17,766 were thought to be the last and only wild horses on Earth, 599 00:29:17,800 --> 00:29:21,000 living in a remote area of Mongolia. 600 00:29:21,033 --> 00:29:26,233 ♪ 601 00:29:29,300 --> 00:29:31,533 As it turns out, 602 00:29:31,566 --> 00:29:34,700 they are the genetic descendants of Botai horses 603 00:29:34,733 --> 00:29:37,866 that returned to the wild when their masters disappeared. 604 00:29:37,900 --> 00:29:41,066 (whinnying) 605 00:29:41,100 --> 00:29:43,200 So these last of the wild horses 606 00:29:43,233 --> 00:29:47,633 are actually descendants of the first domesticated horses, 607 00:29:47,666 --> 00:29:52,666 a living legacy of their Botai masters. 608 00:29:54,000 --> 00:29:56,400 Although the Botai fade away, 609 00:29:56,433 --> 00:30:01,733 another steppe culture seizes the mantle of horse kings. 610 00:30:01,766 --> 00:30:03,866 ♪ 611 00:30:03,900 --> 00:30:06,266 They are called the Yamnaya. 612 00:30:06,300 --> 00:30:08,333 (grunting) 613 00:30:08,366 --> 00:30:10,633 NARRATOR: Bands of nomads who roamed a territory 614 00:30:10,666 --> 00:30:13,500 north of the Black and Caspian seas 615 00:30:13,533 --> 00:30:17,966 at the start of what's called the Bronze Age. 616 00:30:18,000 --> 00:30:20,266 By about 3000 BC, 617 00:30:20,300 --> 00:30:22,800 they become the greatest horse culture 618 00:30:22,833 --> 00:30:26,666 of the ancient world. 619 00:30:26,700 --> 00:30:28,166 The most important thing about the Yamnaya culture 620 00:30:28,200 --> 00:30:29,933 is that they were the first culture 621 00:30:29,966 --> 00:30:34,633 to take advantage of both horseback riding plus wagons. 622 00:30:34,666 --> 00:30:38,633 NARRATOR: Although the first wagons are heavy and crude-looking, 623 00:30:38,666 --> 00:30:40,700 they are a breakthrough technology. 624 00:30:40,733 --> 00:30:44,066 Wagons stocked with food and supplies, 625 00:30:44,100 --> 00:30:48,233 accompanied by horse-herded flocks, 626 00:30:48,266 --> 00:30:53,333 allow the Yamnaya to easily move to the best pasturelands. 627 00:30:53,366 --> 00:30:56,166 And in no time, 628 00:30:56,200 --> 00:31:00,233 the Yamnaya are out-competing other steppe cultures. 629 00:31:00,266 --> 00:31:03,800 BROWN: The horses helped them increase their herds. 630 00:31:03,833 --> 00:31:08,266 And so they could get more sheep and more cattle and more meat. 631 00:31:08,300 --> 00:31:11,300 And so they became wealthier. 632 00:31:11,333 --> 00:31:14,133 Horse herders, could, could beat everybody out. 633 00:31:14,166 --> 00:31:15,566 ♪ 634 00:31:15,600 --> 00:31:18,133 NARRATOR: And if anyone dares to resist the Yamnaya, 635 00:31:18,166 --> 00:31:22,500 here, too, the horse gives them the upper hand-- 636 00:31:22,533 --> 00:31:25,066 literally. 637 00:31:25,100 --> 00:31:29,533 ANTHONY: It was an advantage to ride up to somebody on a horse 638 00:31:29,566 --> 00:31:30,833 and use the horse as a platform. 639 00:31:30,866 --> 00:31:33,066 ♪ 640 00:31:33,100 --> 00:31:35,500 The height advantage is a real advantage. 641 00:31:35,533 --> 00:31:39,366 OLSEN: I think we find it hard to imagine 642 00:31:39,400 --> 00:31:44,466 how thoroughly they could overcome other populations 643 00:31:44,500 --> 00:31:45,600 who are just sitting there 644 00:31:45,633 --> 00:31:48,366 and unfortunately, very, very vulnerable. 645 00:31:48,400 --> 00:31:50,600 ♪ 646 00:31:50,633 --> 00:31:51,833 NARRATOR: Over time, 647 00:31:51,866 --> 00:31:55,033 the Yamnaya, and other cultures they influence, 648 00:31:55,066 --> 00:31:57,733 develop weapons like battle-axes 649 00:31:57,766 --> 00:32:00,500 that are lethal on or off a horse. 650 00:32:00,533 --> 00:32:02,400 ♪ 651 00:32:02,433 --> 00:32:07,366 FLEMMING KAHL: This battle-ax was a very important piece. 652 00:32:07,400 --> 00:32:10,200 The edge is not sharp. 653 00:32:10,233 --> 00:32:13,100 It's not very good for, for cutting wood. 654 00:32:13,133 --> 00:32:18,300 But used in battle for, well, breaking skulls, 655 00:32:18,333 --> 00:32:19,866 it's very efficient. 656 00:32:19,900 --> 00:32:21,966 ♪ 657 00:32:22,000 --> 00:32:27,233 All over Europe we find, actually, skulls 658 00:32:27,266 --> 00:32:31,300 which has been, well, broken by ax blows. 659 00:32:31,333 --> 00:32:35,233 NARRATOR: With their horses, wagons, and weapons, 660 00:32:35,266 --> 00:32:38,100 the Yamnaya and other cultures they combine with 661 00:32:38,133 --> 00:32:42,466 begin to range ever farther from the central steppe, 662 00:32:42,500 --> 00:32:45,200 moving as far east as Mongolia 663 00:32:45,233 --> 00:32:48,600 and west into the heart of Europe. 664 00:32:48,633 --> 00:32:49,966 ♪ 665 00:32:50,000 --> 00:32:53,266 And David Anthony contends these aggressive nomads 666 00:32:53,300 --> 00:32:57,233 dominate almost every population they encounter, 667 00:32:57,266 --> 00:33:00,933 because many people begin speaking Yamnaya. 668 00:33:00,966 --> 00:33:03,033 (screaming) 669 00:33:03,066 --> 00:33:05,600 Language is connected to power or to wealth. 670 00:33:05,633 --> 00:33:07,733 People drop the language they're speaking 671 00:33:07,766 --> 00:33:09,100 and adopt a new language, 672 00:33:09,133 --> 00:33:11,100 because that language gives them advantages. 673 00:33:11,133 --> 00:33:12,633 ♪ 674 00:33:12,666 --> 00:33:15,166 NARRATOR: But the Yamnaya left no written record 675 00:33:15,200 --> 00:33:16,766 of their language, 676 00:33:16,800 --> 00:33:20,200 so how could Anthony or anyone possibly know 677 00:33:20,233 --> 00:33:23,900 what their language looked like or sounded like? 678 00:33:25,366 --> 00:33:28,366 ANDREW BYRD (speaking Proto-Indo-European): 679 00:33:31,266 --> 00:33:33,166 NARRATOR: Andrew Byrd believes these words 680 00:33:33,200 --> 00:33:35,933 are close to those spoken by the Yamnaya. 681 00:33:35,966 --> 00:33:38,366 (speaking Proto-Indo-European) 682 00:33:38,400 --> 00:33:41,700 NARRATOR: He's made up the story, but can trace the words back 683 00:33:41,733 --> 00:33:43,833 to the time they were first spoken 684 00:33:43,866 --> 00:33:47,466 and then reconstruct the language they came from. 685 00:33:47,500 --> 00:33:50,233 BYRD (speaking Proto-Indo-European): 686 00:33:50,266 --> 00:33:52,566 NARRATOR: Linguists have long maintained 687 00:33:52,600 --> 00:33:55,966 that many languages in Europe and Asia, 688 00:33:56,000 --> 00:33:58,366 including Ancient Greek and Roman; 689 00:33:58,400 --> 00:34:01,600 Romance languages like French and Spanish; 690 00:34:01,633 --> 00:34:02,900 Germanic languages, 691 00:34:02,933 --> 00:34:06,333 including English and the Scandinavian languages; 692 00:34:06,366 --> 00:34:09,433 even Russian and Indian Sanskrit, 693 00:34:09,466 --> 00:34:15,400 all derive from a common language source. 694 00:34:15,433 --> 00:34:19,433 If you look at languages like English and Latin and Greek, 695 00:34:19,466 --> 00:34:21,333 Sanskrit and Russian, 696 00:34:21,366 --> 00:34:24,699 and you start to see these words looking very, very similar 697 00:34:24,733 --> 00:34:25,833 to one another. 698 00:34:25,866 --> 00:34:28,100 For example, if you look at the word for brother, 699 00:34:28,133 --> 00:34:30,566 within English, it's "brother." 700 00:34:30,600 --> 00:34:32,466 If you jump down to ancient Rome, 701 00:34:32,500 --> 00:34:35,966 it's "frater," as in our word fraternity. 702 00:34:36,000 --> 00:34:39,033 If you go to ancient India, it's "bratar," 703 00:34:39,066 --> 00:34:41,866 and if you go to ancient Greece, you have "pratar." 704 00:34:41,900 --> 00:34:43,100 And you could see 705 00:34:43,133 --> 00:34:45,199 that these words look so overwhelmingly similar. 706 00:34:45,233 --> 00:34:48,600 They have Rs after some sort of B- or P-like element. 707 00:34:48,633 --> 00:34:50,600 They have a T sort of thing in the middle of the word. 708 00:34:50,633 --> 00:34:51,933 They all end in R. 709 00:34:51,966 --> 00:34:55,133 And, and the fact that all of these things look alike 710 00:34:55,166 --> 00:34:56,366 can't be by chance, 711 00:34:56,400 --> 00:34:57,433 leading us to the... 712 00:34:57,466 --> 00:35:00,200 The only sensible conclusion is to say 713 00:35:00,233 --> 00:35:03,900 that these all were inherited from an ancient language. 714 00:35:03,933 --> 00:35:08,566 NARRATOR: Linguists call this source language Proto-Indo-European. 715 00:35:08,600 --> 00:35:11,033 They can take a word like "is" 716 00:35:11,066 --> 00:35:13,233 and trace its spelling and sound pattern 717 00:35:13,266 --> 00:35:14,833 back through past languages 718 00:35:14,866 --> 00:35:17,800 to approximately when the word first appeared. 719 00:35:17,833 --> 00:35:22,566 ♪ 720 00:35:22,600 --> 00:35:24,266 They can do this with many words, 721 00:35:24,300 --> 00:35:28,266 like "father." 722 00:35:28,300 --> 00:35:32,200 And most seem to originate in the period of Yamnaya expansion. 723 00:35:32,233 --> 00:35:34,766 ♪ 724 00:35:34,800 --> 00:35:37,266 And some words, like "wheel," 725 00:35:37,300 --> 00:35:38,933 connect directly with the Yamnaya 726 00:35:38,966 --> 00:35:43,400 and only appear after the Yamnaya become dominant. 727 00:35:43,433 --> 00:35:46,833 You can establish that the later Indo-European languages 728 00:35:46,866 --> 00:35:49,833 all expanded after 3500 BC, 729 00:35:49,866 --> 00:35:52,900 because they have the wheel and wagon vocabulary. 730 00:35:52,933 --> 00:35:55,933 And wheels and wagons didn't exist. 731 00:35:55,966 --> 00:35:57,600 They had to be invented first. 732 00:35:57,633 --> 00:36:00,466 It's very much like the word "hard disk." 733 00:36:00,500 --> 00:36:04,466 It shows up in dictionaries in 1978. 734 00:36:04,500 --> 00:36:06,766 And dictionaries before 1978 735 00:36:06,800 --> 00:36:08,766 didn't have the word "hard disk" in them. 736 00:36:08,800 --> 00:36:11,900 Because it hadn't been invented yet. 737 00:36:11,933 --> 00:36:14,800 And so Proto-Indo-European must have been spoken 738 00:36:14,833 --> 00:36:17,833 after wheels were invented. 739 00:36:17,866 --> 00:36:20,833 Therefore, we assume that there was some ancestral language 740 00:36:20,866 --> 00:36:22,666 which we can call the Yamnaya, 741 00:36:22,700 --> 00:36:25,133 which was the source of all of these languages. 742 00:36:25,166 --> 00:36:28,533 NARRATOR: But how did these bands of nomads 743 00:36:28,566 --> 00:36:31,233 overwhelm other cultures so completely 744 00:36:31,266 --> 00:36:34,300 that people began speaking their language? 745 00:36:34,333 --> 00:36:36,766 Shouldn't there be some indication 746 00:36:36,800 --> 00:36:39,800 they had become conquerors? 747 00:36:39,833 --> 00:36:41,266 There is very little evidence 748 00:36:41,300 --> 00:36:43,933 that what happened 4,800 years ago 749 00:36:43,966 --> 00:36:45,333 is related to violence, 750 00:36:45,366 --> 00:36:47,600 that there was a massive amount of warriors coming in 751 00:36:47,633 --> 00:36:50,166 and just, like, stabbing and killing everybody, 752 00:36:50,200 --> 00:36:51,700 because we don't find evidence for that. 753 00:36:51,733 --> 00:36:53,100 ♪ 754 00:36:53,133 --> 00:36:55,533 NARRATOR: So how did Yamnaya language and culture 755 00:36:55,566 --> 00:36:59,000 spread across Europe and Asia? 756 00:36:59,033 --> 00:37:01,700 Is there something more tangible than language 757 00:37:01,733 --> 00:37:03,800 to account for their dominant presence? 758 00:37:03,833 --> 00:37:05,433 (bicycle bell rings) 759 00:37:05,466 --> 00:37:07,133 Back in Copenhagen, 760 00:37:07,166 --> 00:37:11,833 Eske Willerslev had long puzzled over the question: 761 00:37:11,866 --> 00:37:15,400 "Which ancient cultures were most responsible 762 00:37:15,433 --> 00:37:17,533 for the ancestry of people living today?" 763 00:37:17,566 --> 00:37:20,066 ♪ 764 00:37:20,100 --> 00:37:22,266 WILLERSLEV: Our history 765 00:37:22,300 --> 00:37:23,333 far back in time 766 00:37:23,366 --> 00:37:27,000 is actually written still in our genes, 767 00:37:27,033 --> 00:37:30,800 and that means you can, you can follow human history 768 00:37:30,833 --> 00:37:36,133 by analyzing the genome of these ancient individuals. 769 00:37:36,166 --> 00:37:38,300 ♪ 770 00:37:38,333 --> 00:37:42,466 NARRATOR: He was especially curious about the Yamnaya. 771 00:37:42,500 --> 00:37:46,500 If they had dominated large parts of Europe and Asia, 772 00:37:46,533 --> 00:37:48,566 then their DNA should have passed on 773 00:37:48,600 --> 00:37:51,400 to future generations, down to the present. 774 00:37:53,766 --> 00:37:55,433 His team began 775 00:37:55,466 --> 00:37:58,166 by sequencing ancient remains from across Eurasia, 776 00:37:58,200 --> 00:38:02,166 and then comparing them to a Yamnaya genome 777 00:38:02,200 --> 00:38:05,466 to see how widely the Yamnaya genes had spread. 778 00:38:05,500 --> 00:38:07,400 ♪ 779 00:38:07,433 --> 00:38:09,200 They then compared this data 780 00:38:09,233 --> 00:38:12,100 to the genomes of modern populations 781 00:38:12,133 --> 00:38:17,866 and put the results on what are called PCA plots. 782 00:38:17,900 --> 00:38:20,766 PCA is a way of understanding very simply and visually 783 00:38:20,800 --> 00:38:22,900 the differences in genetic ancestry 784 00:38:22,933 --> 00:38:23,866 between populations. 785 00:38:23,900 --> 00:38:25,100 For example, 786 00:38:25,133 --> 00:38:28,733 you put a bunch of people from Europe on a PCA, 787 00:38:28,766 --> 00:38:30,133 and you'll notice 788 00:38:30,166 --> 00:38:34,100 that the people in Northern and Southern Europe separate. 789 00:38:34,133 --> 00:38:36,100 The second thing you want to do on this 790 00:38:36,133 --> 00:38:38,800 is to overlay ancient populations 791 00:38:38,833 --> 00:38:40,966 on top of the modern populations 792 00:38:41,000 --> 00:38:42,366 and see where they lie. 793 00:38:44,000 --> 00:38:47,000 NARRATOR: These two plots show modern population groups 794 00:38:47,033 --> 00:38:50,900 as gray dots in Europe and Central Asia. 795 00:38:50,933 --> 00:38:52,333 When we overlay the genomes 796 00:38:52,366 --> 00:38:57,366 of people who lived 10,000 and 8,000 years ago, 797 00:38:57,400 --> 00:39:00,666 we see almost no overlap, 798 00:39:00,700 --> 00:39:02,766 indicating little genetic connection 799 00:39:02,800 --> 00:39:05,433 to people living today. 800 00:39:06,566 --> 00:39:08,033 But in this plot-- 801 00:39:08,066 --> 00:39:10,633 representing the approximately 5,000-year-old 802 00:39:10,666 --> 00:39:12,700 Yamnaya expansion, 803 00:39:12,733 --> 00:39:15,866 the dots overlap significantly, 804 00:39:15,900 --> 00:39:17,233 meaning today, 805 00:39:17,266 --> 00:39:20,500 millions of people of European and Asian descent 806 00:39:20,533 --> 00:39:23,566 owe their ancestry to Yamnaya nomads 807 00:39:23,600 --> 00:39:25,866 of the Eurasian steppe. 808 00:39:25,900 --> 00:39:28,100 NARASIMHAN: What we didn't understand from the archaeology 809 00:39:28,133 --> 00:39:32,500 is the extent of the movement and the impact 810 00:39:32,533 --> 00:39:35,233 that the Yamnaya had on genetic ancestry. 811 00:39:35,266 --> 00:39:40,066 But now we know that up to 50% and 30%, respectively, 812 00:39:40,100 --> 00:39:42,800 of the genetics of Europe and South Asia 813 00:39:42,833 --> 00:39:46,833 are directly descended from that of the Yamnaya. 814 00:39:46,866 --> 00:39:48,166 So the impact is huge, 815 00:39:48,200 --> 00:39:51,233 as much as any genetic ancestry that we have. 816 00:39:51,266 --> 00:39:52,900 ♪ 817 00:39:52,933 --> 00:39:55,200 NARRATOR: And the Yamnaya could not have made 818 00:39:55,233 --> 00:39:59,033 such a massive and wide-ranging genetic impact 819 00:39:59,066 --> 00:40:02,166 without their horses and wagons. 820 00:40:02,200 --> 00:40:05,900 ♪ 821 00:40:05,933 --> 00:40:09,000 WILLERSLEV: Anthropologists like Anthony were right 822 00:40:09,033 --> 00:40:12,433 that the early Bronze Age is characterized 823 00:40:12,466 --> 00:40:16,600 by this very significant movement of the Yamnaya peoples 824 00:40:16,633 --> 00:40:20,200 on horses that are very speedy, very fast 825 00:40:20,233 --> 00:40:23,366 into Northwestern Europe and Central Asia, 826 00:40:23,400 --> 00:40:25,500 and bringing with them, of course, 827 00:40:25,533 --> 00:40:28,033 the genes, the culture, and the language. 828 00:40:28,066 --> 00:40:32,100 But the majority of archaeologists, you know, 829 00:40:32,133 --> 00:40:34,533 didn't believe this was the case. 830 00:40:34,566 --> 00:40:35,900 Six-and-a-half years old... 831 00:40:35,933 --> 00:40:39,466 NARRATOR: For Anthony and Brown, this was vindication. 832 00:40:39,500 --> 00:40:43,333 The Yamnaya had been masters of their universe. 833 00:40:43,366 --> 00:40:45,066 BROWN: We were very happy. 834 00:40:45,100 --> 00:40:48,166 We were smiling and laughing, 835 00:40:48,200 --> 00:40:50,466 and going, "Oh, my God, I can't believe it's that big." 836 00:40:50,500 --> 00:40:54,433 But I was pretty sure these guys were roaming all over the place. 837 00:40:54,466 --> 00:40:56,266 ♪ 838 00:40:56,300 --> 00:40:58,533 NARRATOR: But a big question remained. 839 00:40:58,566 --> 00:41:02,166 It appears Yamnaya numbers are small 840 00:41:02,200 --> 00:41:06,800 compared to the size of the populations they encountered. 841 00:41:06,833 --> 00:41:10,233 So despite the advantage their horses gave them, 842 00:41:10,266 --> 00:41:12,666 Eske wondered if there could be other factors 843 00:41:12,700 --> 00:41:17,133 that weakened the populations they dominated. 844 00:41:17,166 --> 00:41:18,400 At first we thought, 845 00:41:18,433 --> 00:41:20,666 "Well, maybe it's some kind of climatic changes," 846 00:41:20,700 --> 00:41:22,700 and we went, you know, through the climate records, 847 00:41:22,733 --> 00:41:25,500 and we couldn't really see anything very dramatically. 848 00:41:25,533 --> 00:41:27,966 And then there was, one of the archaeologists said, 849 00:41:28,000 --> 00:41:29,066 on the team said, 850 00:41:29,100 --> 00:41:30,833 "Well, what about diseases, right?" 851 00:41:30,866 --> 00:41:33,800 So we thought, "Well, let's look for pestis." 852 00:41:33,833 --> 00:41:36,900 ♪ 853 00:41:36,933 --> 00:41:40,633 NARRATOR: Yersinia pestis-- the plague. 854 00:41:40,666 --> 00:41:42,366 During the Middle Ages, 855 00:41:42,400 --> 00:41:47,100 this lethal pandemic killed over half the population of Europe. 856 00:41:47,133 --> 00:41:50,533 If it had struck during Yamnaya times, 857 00:41:50,566 --> 00:41:54,300 it might have decimated local populations, 858 00:41:54,333 --> 00:41:57,600 clearing a path for a Yamnaya takeover. 859 00:41:57,633 --> 00:42:00,900 ♪ 860 00:42:00,933 --> 00:42:02,033 Eske decided to see 861 00:42:02,066 --> 00:42:04,200 if he could find traces of the plague 862 00:42:04,233 --> 00:42:08,500 in the bones of the Yamnaya and the people they encountered. 863 00:42:08,533 --> 00:42:11,833 But he would need lots of human samples to test. 864 00:42:13,066 --> 00:42:16,100 Remarkably, in St. Petersburg, Russia, 865 00:42:16,133 --> 00:42:18,833 a rather unique anthropology museum 866 00:42:18,866 --> 00:42:23,066 had just what he needed. 867 00:42:23,100 --> 00:42:26,066 Some of the museum's displays 868 00:42:26,100 --> 00:42:30,400 have a "Ripley's Believe It or Not" feel to them. 869 00:42:30,433 --> 00:42:34,533 But the real treasures are in storage, 870 00:42:34,566 --> 00:42:38,166 as Niobe finds out firsthand. 871 00:42:38,200 --> 00:42:43,100 If you're after DNA from any part of the former Soviet Union, 872 00:42:43,133 --> 00:42:45,200 this is the place to come: 873 00:42:45,233 --> 00:42:46,666 the museum of anthropology 874 00:42:46,700 --> 00:42:49,866 that Peter the Great founded over 300 years ago, 875 00:42:49,900 --> 00:42:51,933 the Kunstkamera. 876 00:42:51,966 --> 00:42:53,900 So for centuries, Russian archaeologists 877 00:42:53,933 --> 00:42:56,133 have been coming back to these storerooms 878 00:42:56,166 --> 00:42:57,800 with their discoveries. 879 00:42:57,833 --> 00:43:00,466 And today, well, 880 00:43:00,500 --> 00:43:04,266 the collection of human remains is astounding. 881 00:43:04,300 --> 00:43:08,100 ♪ 882 00:43:08,133 --> 00:43:11,666 NARRATOR: There are hundreds of skulls and skeletal remains 883 00:43:11,700 --> 00:43:18,000 from different time periods and throughout Asia and Europe. 884 00:43:18,033 --> 00:43:20,066 Oh, wow, okay. 885 00:43:20,100 --> 00:43:21,600 This is a large collection. 886 00:43:23,000 --> 00:43:25,800 NARRATOR: And Eske has convinced the museum's archaeologist, 887 00:43:25,833 --> 00:43:27,433 Slava Moiseyev, 888 00:43:27,466 --> 00:43:31,133 to let him take back scores of teeth and petrous bones 889 00:43:31,166 --> 00:43:33,466 to analyze in his lab. 890 00:43:33,500 --> 00:43:36,533 (saw whirring) 891 00:43:36,566 --> 00:43:37,766 ♪ 892 00:43:37,800 --> 00:43:40,833 The two men work for days cutting samples... 893 00:43:40,866 --> 00:43:43,233 WILLERSLEV: Nothing like the smell 894 00:43:43,266 --> 00:43:45,200 of fresh bone in the morning. 895 00:43:45,233 --> 00:43:46,433 (chuckling) 896 00:43:46,466 --> 00:43:49,133 NARRATOR: ...carefully documenting each specimen 897 00:43:49,166 --> 00:43:51,866 and literally pulling teeth. 898 00:43:51,900 --> 00:43:57,433 ♪ 899 00:43:57,466 --> 00:44:00,766 Moiseyev has one group of Yamnaya samples 900 00:44:00,800 --> 00:44:03,366 he knows Eske will want. 901 00:44:03,400 --> 00:44:06,466 This is rather strange burials, 902 00:44:06,500 --> 00:44:11,100 because mostly people had just single burials. 903 00:44:11,133 --> 00:44:13,800 And this consist of seven individuals. 904 00:44:13,833 --> 00:44:15,866 It's quite unusual. 905 00:44:13,833 --> 00:44:15,866 Oh, wow. 906 00:44:18,333 --> 00:44:22,300 NARRATOR: Group graves became common for later-era plague victims. 907 00:44:22,333 --> 00:44:26,933 So these samples will go to the top of the stack. 908 00:44:26,966 --> 00:44:31,933 In the end, the museum-- like the Tooth Fairy... 909 00:44:31,966 --> 00:44:33,266 Okay. 910 00:44:33,300 --> 00:44:35,666 NARRATOR: ...bequeaths Eske a goldmine of samples. 911 00:44:35,700 --> 00:44:37,466 And sure enough, 912 00:44:37,500 --> 00:44:42,166 many contained genetic evidence of the plague. 913 00:44:42,200 --> 00:44:44,033 WILLERSLEV: We started screening, and, you know, 914 00:44:44,066 --> 00:44:46,266 bang, it just jumped out, right? 915 00:44:46,300 --> 00:44:48,100 I mean, so we saw fragments of it, 916 00:44:48,133 --> 00:44:49,666 and then we said, "Wow!" 917 00:44:51,000 --> 00:44:54,766 This is basically evidence of pestis and plague epidemics... 918 00:44:54,800 --> 00:44:56,166 (coughing) 919 00:44:56,200 --> 00:45:00,433 WILLERSLEV: ...3,000 years before any written record. 920 00:45:00,466 --> 00:45:02,366 So it was an amazing result. 921 00:45:02,400 --> 00:45:03,900 (coughing) 922 00:45:03,933 --> 00:45:06,966 NARRATOR: The evidence shows the plague begins in the steppe, 923 00:45:07,000 --> 00:45:10,333 possibly in Yamnaya communities, 924 00:45:10,366 --> 00:45:12,533 and including the family of seven 925 00:45:12,566 --> 00:45:15,233 buried together in a single grave. 926 00:45:15,266 --> 00:45:18,633 ♪ 927 00:45:26,833 --> 00:45:29,166 So clearly at some point, 928 00:45:29,200 --> 00:45:33,000 the Yamnaya themselves are suffering horribly. 929 00:45:33,033 --> 00:45:37,900 But those that do survive probably develop immunity. 930 00:45:37,933 --> 00:45:40,566 ♪ 931 00:45:40,600 --> 00:45:41,700 And as they expand their reach, 932 00:45:41,733 --> 00:45:46,366 they become like the Grim Reaper on horseback, 933 00:45:46,400 --> 00:45:49,166 carrying plague germs with them. 934 00:45:49,200 --> 00:45:51,933 KRAUSE: The plague is spreading with those people. 935 00:45:51,966 --> 00:45:53,866 Those people actually bring the plague 936 00:45:53,900 --> 00:45:55,933 into the regions that they move into. 937 00:45:55,966 --> 00:45:57,533 ♪ 938 00:45:57,566 --> 00:46:00,633 NARRATOR: And where people have no previous exposure, 939 00:46:00,666 --> 00:46:04,533 only a few survive. 940 00:46:04,566 --> 00:46:10,166 And what happens to those survivors is an age-old story. 941 00:46:10,200 --> 00:46:15,300 ANTHONY: The Yamnaya brought a really deadly disease with them 942 00:46:15,333 --> 00:46:16,900 that could have been responsible 943 00:46:16,933 --> 00:46:20,900 for a large part of the population replacement. 944 00:46:20,933 --> 00:46:23,133 There are other ways, though, of course, 945 00:46:23,166 --> 00:46:25,600 to replace a population, other than disease. 946 00:46:25,633 --> 00:46:29,433 You can directly kill them. 947 00:46:29,466 --> 00:46:33,933 And it does look like the survival of males 948 00:46:33,966 --> 00:46:37,733 was much less than the survival of females. 949 00:46:37,766 --> 00:46:43,033 You find Yamnaya tribes that regularly engaged in raiding, 950 00:46:43,066 --> 00:46:46,200 killing the men and taking local women. 951 00:46:46,233 --> 00:46:47,833 (people screaming) 952 00:46:47,866 --> 00:46:52,800 NARRATOR: And using those women to produce Yamnaya offspring. 953 00:46:52,833 --> 00:46:58,433 The ancient world could be a very unpleasant place. 954 00:46:58,466 --> 00:47:00,433 WILLERSLEV: When I started this project, 955 00:47:00,466 --> 00:47:03,333 I had this very romantic view of, of the whole thing, 956 00:47:03,366 --> 00:47:05,966 and, and kind of, you know, dreamed about, you know, 957 00:47:06,000 --> 00:47:09,500 living myself during the Yamnaya times, right? 958 00:47:09,533 --> 00:47:11,233 I have changed that conception. 959 00:47:11,266 --> 00:47:13,366 I'm happy to live now. (laughs) 960 00:47:13,400 --> 00:47:16,700 ♪ 961 00:47:16,733 --> 00:47:18,133 NARRATOR: The full impact 962 00:47:18,166 --> 00:47:21,700 of the Yamnaya's culture, language, and genetic dominance 963 00:47:21,733 --> 00:47:23,833 would take centuries, 964 00:47:23,866 --> 00:47:28,033 passing down to other cultures they combined with. 965 00:47:28,066 --> 00:47:30,466 NARASIMHAN: It's sort of a slow-rolling process. 966 00:47:30,500 --> 00:47:31,733 It's not like one group of people 967 00:47:31,766 --> 00:47:33,800 is just packing up their bags and moving off 968 00:47:33,833 --> 00:47:36,733 to Iberia or England or South Asia or India, 969 00:47:36,766 --> 00:47:38,533 wherever you want to go. 970 00:47:38,566 --> 00:47:40,200 But they're meeting large groups of people 971 00:47:40,233 --> 00:47:42,900 who are farming, and, you know, doing their thing. 972 00:47:42,933 --> 00:47:45,566 And then there's a hybrid culture that evolves, 973 00:47:45,600 --> 00:47:48,066 and a hybrid genetic ancestry that evolves. 974 00:47:48,100 --> 00:47:49,633 And these people then subsequently move 975 00:47:49,666 --> 00:47:50,666 to other parts of the world. 976 00:47:50,700 --> 00:47:52,600 (men calling, horses whinnying) 977 00:47:52,633 --> 00:47:54,133 NARRATOR: But back on the steppe, 978 00:47:54,166 --> 00:47:57,733 the Yamnaya continue their nomadic ways 979 00:47:57,766 --> 00:48:01,200 and inspire later steppe people to take horsemanship 980 00:48:01,233 --> 00:48:03,733 to a whole other level. 981 00:48:03,766 --> 00:48:08,000 ANTHONY: If we go back to the steppes where Yamnaya came from, 982 00:48:08,033 --> 00:48:11,000 horses continued to be extremely important. 983 00:48:11,033 --> 00:48:15,766 And in fact, a new form of military vehicle 984 00:48:15,800 --> 00:48:18,866 was probably invented by the people in the steppes 985 00:48:18,900 --> 00:48:20,533 around 2000 BC-- 986 00:48:20,566 --> 00:48:21,533 the chariot. 987 00:48:21,566 --> 00:48:25,000 ♪ 988 00:48:25,033 --> 00:48:27,000 NARRATOR: Pulled by swift horses, 989 00:48:27,033 --> 00:48:30,733 the chariot is the first high-speed vehicle. 990 00:48:30,766 --> 00:48:35,433 And many ancient cultures begin using it in battle, 991 00:48:35,466 --> 00:48:39,333 especially on level ground like deserts. 992 00:48:39,366 --> 00:48:41,500 ♪ 993 00:48:41,533 --> 00:48:44,300 But the most significant developments 994 00:48:44,333 --> 00:48:46,433 come when the great horse cavalries 995 00:48:46,466 --> 00:48:49,866 of first the Huns and then the Mongols 996 00:48:49,900 --> 00:48:52,400 begin thundering across the steppe. 997 00:48:52,433 --> 00:48:53,533 (swords scraping scabbards) 998 00:48:53,566 --> 00:48:56,766 These skilled horsemen could ride and shoot 999 00:48:56,800 --> 00:48:57,833 at the same time 1000 00:48:57,866 --> 00:49:00,800 and become the most lethal military force 1001 00:49:00,833 --> 00:49:02,800 the world has ever seen... 1002 00:49:02,833 --> 00:49:07,100 ♪ 1003 00:49:07,133 --> 00:49:10,666 ...capable of bringing armies and whole cities 1004 00:49:10,700 --> 00:49:13,666 across Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean 1005 00:49:13,700 --> 00:49:15,266 to their knees. 1006 00:49:15,300 --> 00:49:17,766 ♪ 1007 00:49:17,800 --> 00:49:20,033 Although these steppe warriors emerged 1008 00:49:20,066 --> 00:49:23,433 centuries after the Botai and Yamnaya, 1009 00:49:23,466 --> 00:49:27,766 their roots go back to those first riders 1010 00:49:27,800 --> 00:49:30,733 and their mastery of horses. 1011 00:49:30,766 --> 00:49:35,333 ♪ 1012 00:49:35,366 --> 00:49:40,000 OLSEN: If you just think of some of the great empire leaders in history, 1013 00:49:40,033 --> 00:49:42,833 for example, Genghis Khan, 1014 00:49:42,866 --> 00:49:44,966 or Alexander the Great, 1015 00:49:45,000 --> 00:49:47,166 so many of them built their empire 1016 00:49:47,200 --> 00:49:49,166 on the backs of horses. 1017 00:49:49,200 --> 00:49:51,866 And that of course led to the spread of civilization, 1018 00:49:51,900 --> 00:49:54,833 the spread of all kinds of technologies, 1019 00:49:54,866 --> 00:49:58,366 the Silk Road, various trade routes. 1020 00:49:58,400 --> 00:50:01,566 Everything hinged on having horses. 1021 00:50:01,600 --> 00:50:05,400 NARRATOR: The reverence ancient people had for horses, 1022 00:50:05,433 --> 00:50:08,400 revealed first in early cave paintings, 1023 00:50:08,433 --> 00:50:12,500 would continue for thousands of years. 1024 00:50:12,533 --> 00:50:15,133 This bronze and gold sun chariot, 1025 00:50:15,166 --> 00:50:16,866 discovered in Denmark, 1026 00:50:16,900 --> 00:50:19,133 perhaps expresses this best, 1027 00:50:19,166 --> 00:50:23,400 and is one of the most important symbols of the Bronze Age. 1028 00:50:23,433 --> 00:50:26,700 Here, the horse is God's partner, 1029 00:50:26,733 --> 00:50:30,966 helping pull the sun across the heavens. 1030 00:50:31,000 --> 00:50:32,466 KAHL: We could wonder 1031 00:50:32,500 --> 00:50:38,233 why the horse became the most prominent helpers of the sun. 1032 00:50:38,266 --> 00:50:40,333 But I think the reason is 1033 00:50:40,366 --> 00:50:45,066 that the horse was, and is, even today, 1034 00:50:45,100 --> 00:50:48,900 perhaps the most aristocratic animal that you can find, 1035 00:50:48,933 --> 00:50:53,333 a natural choice for a divine being, 1036 00:50:53,366 --> 00:50:57,100 the very symbol of movement. 1037 00:50:57,133 --> 00:50:59,200 ♪ 1038 00:50:59,233 --> 00:51:00,666 (whinnying) 1039 00:51:00,700 --> 00:51:03,766 WILLERSLEV: Getting the first time on a horseback here, 1040 00:51:03,800 --> 00:51:07,500 and being able to just feel the speed, 1041 00:51:07,533 --> 00:51:10,266 and the distance you can cover, 1042 00:51:10,300 --> 00:51:12,200 you can see the whole possibility 1043 00:51:12,233 --> 00:51:14,700 of exchanging knowledge, 1044 00:51:14,733 --> 00:51:16,633 understanding the world you are in. 1045 00:51:16,666 --> 00:51:18,266 It's a game-changer right? 1046 00:51:18,300 --> 00:51:20,366 It's a game-changer in human history. 1047 00:51:20,400 --> 00:51:22,166 ♪ 1048 00:51:22,200 --> 00:51:25,300 NARRATOR: For nearly 6,000 years, 1049 00:51:25,333 --> 00:51:29,233 horses have been the human race's special companion, 1050 00:51:29,266 --> 00:51:31,800 our extra muscle, 1051 00:51:31,833 --> 00:51:34,466 our overland vehicles, 1052 00:51:34,500 --> 00:51:37,566 and symbols of power. 1053 00:51:38,466 --> 00:51:41,033 Horses gave us the freedom to move, 1054 00:51:41,066 --> 00:51:44,600 and that freedom changed the very nature of human life. 1055 00:51:44,633 --> 00:51:49,166 For all we puny humans lack, horsepower made up for it. 1056 00:51:49,200 --> 00:51:53,500 ♪ 1057 00:51:53,533 --> 00:51:56,500 It's hard to imagine where we'd be, 1058 00:51:56,533 --> 00:51:57,966 what our world would look like, 1059 00:51:58,000 --> 00:51:59,533 without horses. 1060 00:51:59,566 --> 00:52:03,333 ♪ 1061 00:52:10,733 --> 00:52:13,066 Major funding for "NOVA" is provided by the following: 1062 00:52:40,733 --> 00:52:42,700 To order this "NOVA" program on DVD, 1063 00:52:42,733 --> 00:52:47,733 visit ShopPBS or call 1-800-PLAY-PBS. 1064 00:52:47,766 --> 00:52:52,766 This program is also available on Amazon Prime Video. 1065 00:52:52,800 --> 00:52:53,733 ♪