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(upbeat music)

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There's so many questions that animals

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help us understand about ourselves.

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How does intelligence happen?

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How does it evolve?

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Why do some species solve problems one way

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and other species solve problems another way?

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If you wanna understand something that we do as a species,

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that we're really curious, why do we do it?

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Animals often have answers for us.

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It might be because we share an ancestor,

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it might be that animals can help us answer

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why natural selection or evolution would have favored

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the thing that we're interested in explaining.

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Animals have something to say about all those questions.

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Is a dolphin smarter than a chimpanzee?

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Is a dog smarter than a cat?

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Ryan Hare is an evolutionary anthropologist

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at Duke University, coauthor of a new book called

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The Genius of Dogs: How Dogs Are Smarter Than You Think.

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Good boy, Congo, come on.

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This way.

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Well probably the reason I study animal psychology

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is 'cause of my pet dog growing up.

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His name was Oreo, and just like every dog owner,

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he'd look deeply into your eyes

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and you look deeply in his eyes

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and you'd wanna know what he was thinking.

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This is my guy now, his name's Congo.

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What's going on through his mind

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and how does he think about us

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and how does he solve problems?

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That's what endlessly fascinates me.

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Good boy.

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Cognitive evolution is just like

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any other type of evolution.

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It means that there's changes in the brain

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that lead to changes in how animals behave,

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solve problems, interact with one another.

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And the study of cognitive evolution is trying

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to understand well why do those changes happen?

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What are the forces that drive those changes?

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So if we're talking about where we are

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in the history of understanding cognitive evolution,

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to the exclusion of humans, I would say we're in an infancy.

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I think we know a lot about what is it that makes

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human psychology different from animal psychology?

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I think we've got a pretty good handle on that.

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Where we know nothing is how psychology evolves,

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how cognition involves in the animal world.

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There's been so little attention and effort,

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and the reason is because every university

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has zero to one people who studies animal psychology.

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So it's very hard if you're doing comparative cognition,

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you're comparing different species to one another,

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but you're the only person there.

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Who are you gonna compare with?

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(melodic music)

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So we're gonna link up everybody all over the world,

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so that we can work together and compare animals.

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We're gonna make a community.

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There are different forms of intelligence on this planet.

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For me intelligence is solving problems

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that are gonna help you survive and reproduce.

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Almost certainly they involve your brain

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that is representing, storing and processing

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information you're taking in.

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If it involves those things, it's intelligent to me.

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There's been discovery after discovery,

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where animals that people would not have thought

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could do anything particularly interesting

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have amazing types of intelligence,

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and often challenge even our greatest abilities.

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Elephants have ultrasonic frequencies of communication

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that we can't hear.

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There's ultraviolet perception in many animals.

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We can't see it, but animals that are

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pollinating those flowers do.

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That's the first step, is define diverse range

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of perceptual abilities that then problem solving

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and flexibility is built on top of.

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The best example, and I love to say this to people

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when they, you know, how can you say that

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an animal could be more intelligent than a human?

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And I always say well how'd you do

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on the echolocation test?

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Obviously you'd be hopeless.

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We don't have the ability to echolocate.

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Echolocation has evolved multiple times in mammals.

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Bats can echolocate, and so can cetaceans.

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Why is it that that type of intelligence evolved

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in those species and it did not evolve in our lineage?

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Self control, it's vital to almost everything

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that we do as humans or that animals do.

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Whether it's a social decision, what should I say next?

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What should I do next?

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To what should I eat?

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Where should I go?

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All of those decisions involve self control.

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The first time we brought a lot of people together

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to work on a problem of cognitive evolution,

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we were able to present 36 different species

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with a problem that we thought would measure self control.

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You have to resist making a response

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that seems like the obvious solution to a problem.

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What we found was that animals that have more complex diets,

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so basically just eat different types of food,

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were the species that did better on the self control task.

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Species that had a much narrower diet,

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like a panda eating bamboo, versus say a great ape,

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all apes, humans included,

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eat hundreds of different species.

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And so the idea there is perhaps when you're

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having to make decisions as you're foraging

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about what to eat when.

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And you have to sort of inhibit

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oh well there's food here and I'm hungry,

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but actually I'm not gonna get as much

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out of the thing I'm sitting in front of,

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I should move to the next source,

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where I'm gonna actually get a bigger payoff.

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And so you have to show some self control.

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If you're just a panda and you're just always eating bamboo,

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I mean there's always bamboo, you just eat the bamboo.

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There's really no need for self control.

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So that gave us a hint that really the force

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that may be driving changes in self control

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in evolution is diet, perhaps more than

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the complexity in the political machinations

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going on in animals' social lives.

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Technically, chimpanzees and bonobos are more

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closely related to us than they are to gorillas.

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For all intents and purposes they look identical.

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Chimpanzees are incredible at making tools

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and using tools to get food that

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they couldn't have access to.

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It ends up that bonobos aren't that good at it.

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Flip side is that bonobos are incredibly empathic,

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they're very sensitive to the emotions of others

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and get very upset when others are upset.

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Chimpanzees tend to be more aggressive,

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especially male chimpanzees.

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They will murder each other.

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Females can be coerced and beaten in horrible ways.

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Bonobos really don't do any of those things.

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So you have these two close relatives

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where which one's more intelligent?

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Is it a chimp or a bonobo you might ask me,

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and what I would suggest is well that's the wrong question.

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The question is what are these different species'

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cognitive profiles?

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And so I've spent a decade comparing chimpanzees

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and bonobos trying to understand what is

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the psychology that produces the different behavior?

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And think what we found in bonobos is

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that they are actually attracted to strangers,

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they actually have a preference for strangers.

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Whereas chimpanzees are very fearful of strangers,

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and that really is the psychology that's leading

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to a lot of these behavioral differences in aggression.

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(melodic music)

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Friendliness was not something that I had

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on top of my mind as something that

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drove cognitive evolution.

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It certainly was the animals that taught me that.

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We presented chimpanzees and bonobos

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with a cooperative problem.

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Okay one, two, three, go!

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They had to pull a tray using ropes

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to be able to eat food,

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and while we've seen so much evidence

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for cooperation in wild chimpanzees,

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when we began studying cooperation in captive settings,

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you're trying to use experimental approaches,

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we had failed miserably to get chimpanzees to cooperate.

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Well we finally realized, the reason we couldn't

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get them to cooperate in captivity

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was because it really mattered who they were with,

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and if they were with somebody that they

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would have a friendly relationship with,

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boom, they could cooperate instantly.

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But if there was somebody that they were intolerant of,

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they could never cooperate.

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And we could turn on and off their cooperative ability

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just by rearranging them with different individuals.

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Bonobos are far more tolerant than chimpanzees.

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We gave them the same set of problems

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but they'd never seen it before.

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They didn't have any knowledge.

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And it didn't matter who we paired them with,

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they solved it spontaneously.

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They were friends and they were tolerant

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so they could do it together.

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Yay, bonobo!

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So it really is, when you put them in direct opposition,

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knowledge versus tolerance in a cooperative task.

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Tolerance wins every time.

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In many ways, bonobos are sort of like

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the domesticated dog of our ape family.

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Chimpanzees would be more wolf-like.

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And comparing everything from their morphology,

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their behavior, their psychology, their physiology,

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many of the differences we see between wolves and dogs

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we see between bonobos and chimpanzees.

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And why is that?

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Why is it that you have these two

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distantly related pair of species

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that have become so similar in the way

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that they've changed from one another.

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What was the process that drove it?

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We think it's the same evolutionary force,

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and we think that force is selection for friendliness.

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(melodic music)

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If you were to ask me the species that

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is most like a human infant in its ability

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to communicate with us, it's not organisms

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like a chimpanzee or bonobo that have much larger brains

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and are obviously closer relatives to us.

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It's the humble dog that is so good at this.

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Speak.

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(dog barking)

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Hush, hush, hush, hush.

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They share an evolutionary history with us

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for the last 25 to 40,000 years.

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Dogs evolved when interacting with hunter gatherers

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and then you look at the effect

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that selection for friendliness has,

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it doesn't take much to then imagine that

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as humans start living at higher density,

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that what do we do amazingly well is create garbage,

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and the garbage that we create

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is a new ecological niche.

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If you're a wolf they can sneak in and get close

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and take advantage of the resources that humans

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are producing as we start living at higher density.

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Ooh, you no longer have to get kicked in the face

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and chase whatever you eat, it's gonna be a reliable,

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sustainable source of food.

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The selection though that's gonna be acting on you

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is you're no longer afraid of humans,

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you're attracted to humans.

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And so what we think happened is over many generations

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there was this really strong selection

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for attraction to humans and friendliness

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and a lack of aggression.

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All of those things put together,

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understanding our evolution,

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understanding the effect of domestication,

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and the fact that they have jobs,

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there are dogs that are helping detect endangered animals,

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there are dogs that are helping people with

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mental and physical disabilities,

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there are dogs that are checking for bed bugs,

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finding cancers.

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Makes dogs really one of the most interesting

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and important species to study.

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In many ways dogs have converged and become

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more like people, more like humans than wolves.

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If you're a domesticated dog you're really good

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at using human gestures.

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Understanding gestures is this amazing thing.

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It seems to develop extremely early in dogs.

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Of course the reason we got interested in this

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is because it's the skill that is so important

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and early emerging in our own species as kids

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start to learn culture and pick up language skills.

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Using pointing gestures or using

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the direction that we look to infer

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what we want or where we want them to go,

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it lasts throughout their lives,

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it doesn't decline as other types of cognitive functions do.

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It's kind of remarkable.

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It's often misreported as some dogs have been

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trained to have a large vocabulary.

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That's not the finding.

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Chase.

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Chase.

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Frisbee.

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Take Frisbee.

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The finding is that they, with one trial learning,

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are able to label an object, a novel object,

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and remember that label for a week or a month later.

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But that's not the surprise.

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If you were to show one of those dogs a picture

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and say get this object in the picture,

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they can go get it.

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Now that may sound like no big deal,

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but that is effectively symbolic representation.

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It's one of the hallmarks of human language acquisition.

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When they told me they were doing that I thought

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there is no way a dog is gonna do that,

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I can't even believe you're trying.

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But yeah, go for it.

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And not only did they do it, they did it really well.

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Lessons from dogs.

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Be nice.

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(laughing)

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Dont bite.

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I mean I think the thing that everybody loves about dogs

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is they're just always so optimistic

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that now's gonna be the fun time,

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and then just so forgiving and loving.

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I hope I can be the person my dog thinks I am.

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I think we'd all be better if we could manage it.

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Good boy.

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I think the thing I'm most excited about

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with this diverse intelligence grant is I think

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we're gonna discover new types of intelligence.

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I think there's species that have been ignored

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or have never been studied in how they

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interact with the world psychologically.

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We're gonna find intelligence, flexibility,

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sophistication, where we least expect it,

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and the hope is that this effort will get us crawling,

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and maybe even running if we're lucky.

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