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Two, one.

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Say goodbye to 2020.

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365 days marked by stark warnings about the planet's future.

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And technological triumphs

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eliminating new potential paths forward.

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During this journey around the sun,

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science continued to reveal stories of our past

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and also provide promise

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that we can overcome the obstacles in way

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some far ahead and others more immediate.

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(siren wailing)

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Like the novel coronavirus, which made 2020,

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a year like no other in recent memory.

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The virus now known as SARS-CoV-2.

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And the disease that causes COVID-19

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first appeared in China in late 2019

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but its impact quickly weighed heavily on the entire world.

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Shortly after the turn of the year,

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the Chinese government limited travel

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during the traditional new year holiday

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hoping to stem the tide of the disease.

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Locking down 60 million people in Hubei province

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including 11 million in the city of Wuhan,

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the first epicenter of the public health crisis.

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The bustling mega city quickly turned into a ghost town.

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The virus most likely originated in bats

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and migrated into the human population

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in what is known as a spillover event.

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Yet, despite our technological prowess and medical knowhow,

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the newness of this coronavirus

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presented health professionals and scientists

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with a steep learning curve.

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How do you treat something

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for which we don't have pharmaceutical interventions?

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On March 11th,

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the World Health Organization officially declared a pandemic

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after repeatedly stressing the serious nature

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of the situation.

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{\an8}This is not a drill.

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{\an8}This is not the time to give up.

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{\an8}This is not a time for excuses.

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{\an8}This is a time for pulling out all the stops.

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As the virus spread, governments around the world

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will enact their own restrictions, school closings,

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business suspensions, and local curfews.

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And with economic activity in dramatic decline

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livelihoods were lost as well.

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The staggering statistics continued to climb.

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By December 1st, 2020,

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confirmed cases exceeded 63 million globally

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causing more than 1.4 million deaths,

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nearly a fifth of which, over 268,000

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occurred in the United States.

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Those most at risk, older people

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or patients with underlying ailments.

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But no one really is safe from the infection.

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Some corona viruses like those that cause the common cold

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attack the upper airways of the respiratory system

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wildly replicating as viruses do.

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{\an8}But just like the MERS and SARS epidemics

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{\an8}earlier this century,

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a more penetrating point of attack

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makes the COVID-19 virus much more dangerous.

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It's in a more vulnerable part of a body

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in the lower airways, deep in the lungs in the alveoli.

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They go in, take over the cell machinery,

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start making new virus.

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{\an8}They prompt the immune response.

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{\an8}So when that immune response kicks in,

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now we're down into the lungs themselves.

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Early symptoms include,

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headache, body aches, fever, and cough.

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Those are the big four.

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And most people that get sick have several of those.

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It's, once they start feeling like they're short of breath

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and if they go into the emergency room

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at the doctor's office,

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and their oxygen level is low,

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then that's where we need to keep a close eye on.

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And what we found is that a small number of the folks

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just all of a sudden, they can get sick very quickly.

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The virus primarily spreads person to person

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through the air in respiratory droplets

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like those contained in a cough or sneeze.

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{\an8}Studies also suggest singing and even talking

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{\an8}can also disperse large amounts of virus laden droplets

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{\an8}into the air.

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Many researchers also believe the virus

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can become aerosolized

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and more easily float through the air

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and ventilation systems.

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Close contact with infected individuals

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continues to be the main driver of transmission.

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The COVID-19 virus moves quickly and quietly

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and it's believed, infected individuals are most contagious

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one or two days before symptoms appear.

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We do know that those individuals

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who might not be actually experiencing

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any symptoms of illness

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have the capacity to spread it.

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Which means that public health responses

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{\an8}need to figure out ways to even monitor the health

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{\an8}and potential transmission rates amongst people

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who appear by all understandings to be healthy.

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And so, official soon advised social distancing guidelines

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of at least six feet.

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Restrictions on large indoor activities

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and public gatherings, frequent and vigorous hand washing,

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and most importantly, the use of facial masks

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not only to protect the wearer

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but more importantly, those around them.

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When it comes to COVID-19,

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it's not just your health you need to worry about,

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it's the health of those around you and who you might affect

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even if you're not necessarily feeling so bad yourself.

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Because once the virus establishes itself in a population

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passing person to person, it's much harder to contain.

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So early on, back in March,

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American health officials recognize the crisis would grow.

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{\an8}I can say we will see more cases

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{\an8}and things will get worse than they are right now.

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And they did.

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Despite mitigation efforts

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to lower the epidemiological curve,

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although some countries fared better than others,

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differences attributed largely to testing

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and contact tracing of those infected with the virus.

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In the United States, New York was hardest hit at first.

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Hospital emergency rooms, intensive care units, and morgues

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filled beyond capacity.

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The bodies of the deceased

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sometimes kept in cold storage trucks.

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A big part of what I think is killing people

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is the sort of what we call multiorgan failure

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as a result of the lungs going first

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and then other organ start to fail.

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But what exactly causes this damage?

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The answer, ARDS or acute respiratory distress syndrome.

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Inflammation in COVID-19 cases

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brought about by our own immune systems, stuck in overdrive.

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{\an8}So it's our own immune system creating some of the damage

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{\an8}in particular target organs in response to that virus.

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And so it's like turning on the heat, but if it's too much

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then you start hurting the tissues around it.

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It starts to create a barrier

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between where the alveoli are, where oxygen is coming in

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and the capillaries right next to it

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pick it up that oxygen to take it to the body.

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And there's a little thin membrane and interstitium there

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which has very little space in it,

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but certain kinds of interstitial pneumonias

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can start to put fluid and inflammation in that

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and thicken it

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so that the oxygen exchange is then compromised.

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However, so much remains unknown

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about SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19.

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Despite the extraordinary efforts

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to develop potential treatments,

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drug therapies, and vaccines.

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And even while more than 40 million have recovered,

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doctors worry about potential long-term effects

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of the illness

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and so the pandemic continues to grow.

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As new waves hit Europe and North America, especially hard

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leaving behind a path of death and disruption in its wake

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and diverting much of the world's scientific resources

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in the search for a solution.

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A critical mission indeed,

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but just one of many medical research endeavors

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hoping to break new ground

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including one trial focused on restoring eyesight

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and apt the ambition for the year 2020.

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Thanks to CRISPR, a tool that allows easy

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and precise editing of our DNA.

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The genetic blueprint held inside every one of ourselves.

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It's been called game changing,

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{\an8}a breakthrough co-invented by Jennifer Doudna

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{\an8}at the University of California, Berkeley.

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I think the CRISPR technology

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is just, it's very exciting

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{\an8}because it's going to enable a lot of science to be done

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{\an8}that was impossible to do in the past.

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Originally discovered in bacteria,

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CRISPR or short bits of DNA

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that make up part of its natural defense system.

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And along with the DNA cutting protein, Cas9

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enable the genetic equivalent

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of cut and paste in Word Processing.

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Editing out a genetic mutation

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that can cause cancer for example,

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replacing it with healthy DNA.

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{\an8}It affords incredible opportunities

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{\an8}not just to do basic research,

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{\an8}but great potential for new cures

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in new ways that were not possible before.

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Scientists around the world

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are also looking at ways of using CRISPR

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to eliminate malaria and Zika,

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to produce drought resistant crops

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and to exterminate invasive species

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like the Asian carp in North America's lakes and rivers.

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The technology is so versatile

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it's estimated that most genetic engineering labs

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in the world, are now using CRISPR

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including the Cambridge Massachusetts based, Editas Medicine

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the lead company in the brilliance clinical trial.

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Their goal to develop a medicine now known as EDIT-101

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to treat leber congenital amaurosis 10

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an early onset form of inherited blindness.

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In early 2020, the first patient in the trial

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was administered EDIT-101 via subretinal injection.

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A procedure designed to deliver the gene editing machine

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directly to the photoreceptor cells.

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This marked the first time

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when CRISPR medicine was used to in fever

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or inside the human body instead of on extract themselves.

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After a three month followup evaluation,

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Editas reported the patient and their vision remained stable

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and noted no safety issues.

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If the BRILLIANCE trial completes all its trial phases

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and proved successful,

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it could transform not only patients lives

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but perhaps also the way medicine is practiced.

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From our most basic biological building blocks

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to outer space far beyond the Earth's atmosphere,

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science breaks down boundaries and grows knowledge,

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achievements build on one another

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and provide stepping stones to the future.

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Redistribution and lift up.

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Since the space shuttle was retired,

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nearly a decade ago, several aerospace companies

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sought to be NASA choice to carry humans and cargo to space.

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And on May 30th, 2020, Elon Musk's SpaceX made history

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with its revolutionary Crew Dragon spaceship

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and Falcon 9 rocket.

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For the first time, NASA astronauts launched from America

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in a commercial spacecraft

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to the International Space Station.

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{\an8}I'm really quite overcome with emotion this day.

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{\an8}It's been 18 years working towards this goal.

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So, it's just hard way that's happened.

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Without the space shuttle,

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the United States depended on Russia

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to keep an American presence on the ISS.

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{\an8}For the last nine years,

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{\an8}we have been purchasing rides on Russian Soyuz rockets

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and those costs have gone up significantly.

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Costs of nearly $4 billion.

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But SpaceX has been hauling cargo

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on Dragon to ISS since 2012.

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{\an8}Floating Dragon to and from the space station successfully

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{\an8}20 times for cargo missions.

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They successfully completed the first test run

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of the all new Crew Dragon to the ISS in 2019.

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Last year, we had our demonstration one mission.

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which was the Crew Dragon

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without any crew on board, went to the space station

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they opened up the hatch and then came back home.

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Demo-1 mark, the first time in history

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a spacecraft docked automatically

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without help from the mothership.

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Who was in the driver's seat? A test dummy.

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This new mission known as NASA SpaceX Demo-2

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is the final major test

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to certify SpaceX's revolutionary crew transportation system

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for long duration missions to ISS.

267
00:14:20,270 --> 00:14:21,590
Most importantly,

268
00:14:21,590 --> 00:14:24,013
that Dragon can safely transport passengers.

269
00:14:27,000 --> 00:14:30,210
Crew Dragon is a free flying spacecraft.

270
00:14:30,210 --> 00:14:31,840
It gets its lift into space

271
00:14:31,840 --> 00:14:34,823
a top of rocket like the Apollo missions.

272
00:14:37,090 --> 00:14:41,780
The 23 story tall SpaceX original, Falcon 9 rocket

273
00:14:41,780 --> 00:14:44,777
delivers nearly 2 million pounds of thrust.

274
00:14:48,980 --> 00:14:51,230
And while this mission marks a new era

275
00:14:51,230 --> 00:14:55,253
in human space flight, the two astronauts are veterans.

276
00:14:56,290 --> 00:14:58,990
Both Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley

277
00:14:58,990 --> 00:15:00,713
flew on NASA space's shuttle.

278
00:15:01,970 --> 00:15:05,503
Hurley was on the very last shuttle flight in 2011.

279
00:15:07,560 --> 00:15:10,263
Now, they've made history once more.

280
00:15:11,470 --> 00:15:15,060
Both Dragon and the Falcon 9 rocket it travels on

281
00:15:15,060 --> 00:15:17,350
are designed to be reused.

282
00:15:17,350 --> 00:15:20,710
SpaceX believes a reusable space flight system

283
00:15:20,710 --> 00:15:22,450
is the pivotal breakthrough needed

284
00:15:22,450 --> 00:15:24,913
to reduce the cost of space access.

285
00:15:26,910 --> 00:15:28,660
{\an8}Falcon stage operation confirmed.

286
00:15:33,840 --> 00:15:36,480
{\an8}After launch, the rocket's first stage

287
00:15:36,480 --> 00:15:39,130
{\an8}made an extraordinary return to earth dive

288
00:15:40,350 --> 00:15:43,363
{\an8}and a pinpoint landing on this ocean platform.

289
00:15:44,730 --> 00:15:46,463
{\an8}Falcon 9 has landed.

290
00:15:47,320 --> 00:15:50,910
{\an8}The rocket second stage, delivered Crew Dragon to orbit

291
00:15:50,910 --> 00:15:52,623
after a 12 minute ride.

292
00:15:54,650 --> 00:15:56,300
Today we accomplished the first flight

293
00:15:56,300 --> 00:15:58,630
{\an8}off the Florida coast, and quite some time.

294
00:15:58,630 --> 00:16:00,020
{\an8}And Doug and I were really proud

295
00:16:00,020 --> 00:16:02,640
{\an8}to have an opportunity to be a part of that.

296
00:16:02,640 --> 00:16:04,790
The crew spent a day in earth's orbit,

297
00:16:04,790 --> 00:16:09,120
flying Crew Dragon manually to test their control capability

298
00:16:09,120 --> 00:16:11,693
before their historic docking with the ISS.

299
00:16:16,660 --> 00:16:21,660
We have docking at 7:16 am Pacific Time.

300
00:16:23,410 --> 00:16:26,560
Bob and Doug, welcome to the International Space Station.

301
00:16:26,560 --> 00:16:28,760
You've completed a historic ride to the ISS.

302
00:16:31,670 --> 00:16:35,740
Behnken and Hurley spent two months aboard ISS

303
00:16:35,740 --> 00:16:39,530
assisting the international crew with science experiments

304
00:16:39,530 --> 00:16:41,770
performing maintenance on the station

305
00:16:41,770 --> 00:16:44,883
and monitoring the health of their Dragon spacecraft.

306
00:16:46,150 --> 00:16:49,220
But eventually it was time to go.

307
00:16:49,220 --> 00:16:51,130
Please confirm your visors are down

308
00:16:51,130 --> 00:16:53,533
and that you are ready for undock and departure.

309
00:16:54,950 --> 00:16:58,323
Soon, they braced for a dramatic re-entry to Earth.

310
00:17:00,170 --> 00:17:03,120
Probably the riskiest part of the mission

311
00:17:03,120 --> 00:17:06,933
traveling at nearly 17,500 miles per hour.

312
00:17:12,340 --> 00:17:14,290
During the re-entry phase,

313
00:17:14,290 --> 00:17:18,920
the spacecraft is engulfed in a plasma bubble of hot gases

314
00:17:18,920 --> 00:17:22,433
with temperatures that can reach 3,500 degrees Fahrenheit.

315
00:17:27,246 --> 00:17:30,746
(participants applauding)

316
00:17:34,215 --> 00:17:36,632
(indistinct)

317
00:17:38,068 --> 00:17:41,500
(participants applauding)

318
00:17:41,500 --> 00:17:43,560
Two sets of drone parachutes deployed

319
00:17:44,530 --> 00:17:47,263
to slow Crew Dragon down for the splashdown.

320
00:17:49,777 --> 00:17:52,910
The SpaceX and NASA teams, welcome back to planet Earth

321
00:17:52,910 --> 00:17:54,690
and thanks for flying SpaceX.

322
00:17:57,776 --> 00:18:00,230
Mission accomplished.

323
00:18:00,230 --> 00:18:01,790
This is something that the whole world

324
00:18:01,790 --> 00:18:03,430
can take some pleasure in

325
00:18:03,430 --> 00:18:07,053
and can really look at this as an achievement of humanity.

326
00:18:08,000 --> 00:18:09,490
These are, these difficult times

327
00:18:09,490 --> 00:18:12,400
when there's not that much good news.

328
00:18:12,400 --> 00:18:15,470
And I think this is one of those things

329
00:18:15,470 --> 00:18:17,070
that it's universally good

330
00:18:17,070 --> 00:18:19,240
no matter where you are on planet Earth,

331
00:18:19,240 --> 00:18:20,650
this is a good thing.

332
00:18:20,650 --> 00:18:22,300
And I hope it brightens your day.

333
00:18:23,900 --> 00:18:26,340
With testing in the rear view mirror,

334
00:18:26,340 --> 00:18:28,160
SpaceX successfully completed

335
00:18:28,160 --> 00:18:32,200
its first operational manned mission in mid-November

336
00:18:32,200 --> 00:18:35,003
delivering foUr astronauts to the ISS.

337
00:18:36,210 --> 00:18:40,080
Of course, orbital space flight is just the beginning.

338
00:18:40,080 --> 00:18:43,950
Both NASA and SpaceX have their sights set next

339
00:18:43,950 --> 00:18:46,130
on a return to the moon.

340
00:18:46,130 --> 00:18:51,130
And then our next door neighbor, the Red Planet, Mars

341
00:18:51,300 --> 00:18:54,070
where one day humans will hopefully follow

342
00:18:54,070 --> 00:18:57,300
in the tracks of a series of advanced scouts,

343
00:18:57,300 --> 00:19:02,300
a long line of robotic probes, including Perseverance

344
00:19:02,350 --> 00:19:06,640
which began its journey on July 30, 2020.

345
00:19:06,640 --> 00:19:08,890
Go Earthless, go Mars 2020

346
00:19:13,060 --> 00:19:15,050
Perseverance is the fifth rover

347
00:19:15,050 --> 00:19:17,883
to join NASA's family of rovers on Mars.

348
00:19:19,060 --> 00:19:21,210
And its mission is not possible

349
00:19:21,210 --> 00:19:23,663
without the work of its earlier predecessors.

350
00:19:24,990 --> 00:19:28,420
Like spirit and opportunity which discovered minerals

351
00:19:28,420 --> 00:19:31,060
suggesting Mars was once a very different place

352
00:19:31,060 --> 00:19:32,480
than it is today,

353
00:19:32,480 --> 00:19:35,963
as planetary geologist, Bethany Ehlman explains.

354
00:19:37,430 --> 00:19:39,240
{\an8}If we look back in the past,

355
00:19:39,240 --> 00:19:43,440
{\an8}Mars was once warmer, wetter, and even had lakes and rivers

356
00:19:43,440 --> 00:19:46,483
like we would recognize on the surface of earth today.

357
00:19:47,830 --> 00:19:50,040
The revelation about Mars and water

358
00:19:50,040 --> 00:19:53,460
gives new credibility to age old questions.

359
00:19:53,460 --> 00:19:58,460
Is there life on Mars or has there ever been life on Mars?

360
00:19:58,770 --> 00:20:01,773
And Perseverance may just help answer that question.

361
00:20:02,630 --> 00:20:05,170
But first, where to land.

362
00:20:05,170 --> 00:20:09,040
Mission planners want the best place to find signs of life.

363
00:20:09,040 --> 00:20:11,933
This means water must've been there a long ago.

364
00:20:13,090 --> 00:20:18,090
We have picked the landing site to be right here

365
00:20:18,230 --> 00:20:21,290
a place called Jezero crater,

366
00:20:21,290 --> 00:20:26,230
which once, when Mars was warmer and wetter, hosted a lake

367
00:20:26,230 --> 00:20:27,580
an environment very different

368
00:20:27,580 --> 00:20:29,923
from what we're gonna see when we land today.

369
00:20:33,390 --> 00:20:36,323
On Earth, lakes are filled with living creatures.

370
00:20:37,550 --> 00:20:40,590
Evidence of that life is preserved in the mud and sand

371
00:20:40,590 --> 00:20:42,553
deposited on the bottom of the lake.

372
00:20:44,010 --> 00:20:46,520
Could the same be true for Mars?

373
00:20:46,520 --> 00:20:48,760
The rover's instruments will closely examine

374
00:20:48,760 --> 00:20:50,903
the ancient rocks of the bank on lake.

375
00:20:53,560 --> 00:20:57,680
But first, after its seven month passage to the Red Planet,

376
00:20:57,680 --> 00:21:00,380
Perseverance will need to successfully navigate

377
00:21:00,380 --> 00:21:03,180
it's descend through the thin Martian atmosphere

378
00:21:04,190 --> 00:21:08,173
using parachutes and a device called a sky crane.

379
00:21:15,860 --> 00:21:19,030
When contact is sensed with the ground,

380
00:21:19,030 --> 00:21:22,420
the tether is cut, that descent stage flies away

381
00:21:22,420 --> 00:21:25,500
and the rover falls which should be no more than a meter

382
00:21:25,500 --> 00:21:27,213
to hit the surface but gently.

383
00:21:32,400 --> 00:21:35,040
Perseverance is now ready for its mission.

384
00:21:35,040 --> 00:21:37,850
As the expression goes, to seek out life

385
00:21:37,850 --> 00:21:40,713
and boldly go where no one has gone before.

386
00:21:42,690 --> 00:21:45,140
The rover will identify chemical elements

387
00:21:45,140 --> 00:21:46,800
on the Martian soil,

388
00:21:46,800 --> 00:21:49,110
as well as organics and minerals

389
00:21:49,110 --> 00:21:51,753
that may be signs of past microbial life.

390
00:21:54,170 --> 00:21:56,560
The latest in camera technology

391
00:21:56,560 --> 00:21:59,933
can resolve features as small as a grain of salt.

392
00:22:03,520 --> 00:22:05,790
If something ever lived here,

393
00:22:05,790 --> 00:22:08,193
Perseverance can find evidence of it.

394
00:22:12,610 --> 00:22:16,410
The drill bores holes and extracts core samples

395
00:22:16,410 --> 00:22:19,233
of a half inch wide and 2.4 inches long.

396
00:22:22,132 --> 00:22:25,070
(spacecraft squishes)

397
00:22:25,070 --> 00:22:28,430
This is a system that allows us to take core samples

398
00:22:28,430 --> 00:22:30,430
of rocky material on the surface of Mars

399
00:22:31,530 --> 00:22:36,530
{\an8}carefully seal them in very sterile, clean vessels

400
00:22:36,540 --> 00:22:38,853
{\an8}for eventual return to Earth.

401
00:22:40,980 --> 00:22:43,143
That's right. Return to Earth.

402
00:22:44,405 --> 00:22:47,000
Up to 47 hermetically sealed tubes

403
00:22:47,000 --> 00:22:50,010
will be stored and eventually left for pickup

404
00:22:50,010 --> 00:22:53,373
by an as of yet unplanned future mission.

405
00:22:56,040 --> 00:22:58,760
Perseverance also features many other advanced

406
00:22:58,760 --> 00:23:00,790
and innovative technologies,

407
00:23:00,790 --> 00:23:05,710
including the stereoscopic eyes of Mastcam-Z.

408
00:23:05,710 --> 00:23:08,003
We're to come up and do ask him.

409
00:23:11,270 --> 00:23:12,580
And the Mars Oxygen

410
00:23:12,580 --> 00:23:16,140
In Situ Resource Utilization Experiment.

411
00:23:16,140 --> 00:23:17,663
Also known as MOXIE.

412
00:23:18,530 --> 00:23:23,280
MOXIE will synthesize oxygen out of the Martian atmosphere

413
00:23:23,280 --> 00:23:26,670
to create a gas that would be breathable by future humans

414
00:23:26,670 --> 00:23:27,503
on the surface.

415
00:23:27,503 --> 00:23:31,060
And MOXIE is a demonstration of this technology.

416
00:23:31,060 --> 00:23:32,880
And that's not all.

417
00:23:32,880 --> 00:23:35,150
Within 30 days of landing,

418
00:23:35,150 --> 00:23:38,934
the rover will deploy an experimental new craft,

419
00:23:38,934 --> 00:23:40,083
a helicopter.

420
00:23:43,120 --> 00:23:46,540
The helicopter has a camera, has two rotors

421
00:23:46,540 --> 00:23:49,580
and we're hoping to prove out this new technology

422
00:23:49,580 --> 00:23:52,833
that we can fly other spacecraft on Mars.

423
00:23:54,110 --> 00:23:59,110
That we can do drone-based exploration aerially on Mars

424
00:23:59,190 --> 00:24:00,823
collecting pictures from above.

425
00:24:02,210 --> 00:24:04,850
It's name is Ingenuity.

426
00:24:04,850 --> 00:24:08,120
And if it works, Mars would be the second world

427
00:24:08,120 --> 00:24:09,483
to see a first flight.

428
00:24:13,580 --> 00:24:16,323
Specially engineered for the Martian environment,

429
00:24:17,220 --> 00:24:20,710
Ingenuity has rotors about four feet long

430
00:24:20,710 --> 00:24:24,263
which spin between two and 3000 times a minute.

431
00:24:25,750 --> 00:24:26,583
Most of our flights

432
00:24:26,583 --> 00:24:28,330
will be at the three to five meter height.

433
00:24:28,330 --> 00:24:30,250
{\an8}We will be going horizontally again

434
00:24:30,250 --> 00:24:32,150
{\an8}at a few meters per second.

435
00:24:32,150 --> 00:24:35,280
So our priority will be to get back engineering delementary

436
00:24:35,280 --> 00:24:38,520
and not so much images, but I'm sure we'll return a few

437
00:24:38,520 --> 00:24:40,470
because the rotors look cool.

438
00:24:40,470 --> 00:24:42,680
If all goes according to plan,

439
00:24:42,680 --> 00:24:46,270
Perseverance will greatly expand our knowledge of Mars

440
00:24:46,270 --> 00:24:48,190
but maybe, just maybe

441
00:24:48,190 --> 00:24:50,240
the search for extraterrestrial life

442
00:24:50,240 --> 00:24:53,920
has largely overlooked another nearby site.

443
00:24:53,920 --> 00:24:56,350
What about Earth's neighbor on the other side?

444
00:24:56,350 --> 00:24:59,493
The second planet in our solar system, Venus?

445
00:25:01,550 --> 00:25:03,000
The surface of the planet

446
00:25:03,000 --> 00:25:06,390
may be a dusty hellish, volcanic cauldron

447
00:25:06,390 --> 00:25:10,720
with temperatures reaching 880 degrees Fahrenheit

448
00:25:10,720 --> 00:25:12,480
inhospitable to life.

449
00:25:12,480 --> 00:25:14,943
Most scientists imagine feasible,

450
00:25:16,060 --> 00:25:19,230
which is why Jane Greaves from Cardiff University

451
00:25:19,230 --> 00:25:21,910
set up sites high above the rocky terrain

452
00:25:21,910 --> 00:25:23,683
in the thick cloudy atmosphere.

453
00:25:24,960 --> 00:25:28,180
It's been suggested that there are possible habitats

454
00:25:28,180 --> 00:25:29,960
in the cloud decks of Venus.

455
00:25:29,960 --> 00:25:33,540
So somewhere where little low forms could live

456
00:25:33,540 --> 00:25:36,910
and in those high clouds, although it is very acidic

457
00:25:36,910 --> 00:25:38,390
it's also reasonably warm,

458
00:25:38,390 --> 00:25:40,500
{\an8}maybe about 20 degrees centigrade

459
00:25:40,500 --> 00:25:41,760
{\an8}and they also has pressure

460
00:25:41,760 --> 00:25:43,760
{\an8}that's about like the one bar pressure

461
00:25:43,760 --> 00:25:44,860
{\an8}at the surface of the earth.

462
00:25:44,860 --> 00:25:47,410
{\an8}So that's why we think that isn't possible habitat.

463
00:25:48,370 --> 00:25:51,150
Greaves and an international team of collaborators

464
00:25:51,150 --> 00:25:53,870
use large and powerful radio telescopes

465
00:25:53,870 --> 00:25:56,310
to zero in on their target.

466
00:25:56,310 --> 00:25:59,490
First, the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope in Hawaii

467
00:26:00,510 --> 00:26:03,893
and then the Atacama Large Millimeter Array.

468
00:26:06,290 --> 00:26:08,840
What's amazing about these instruments

469
00:26:08,840 --> 00:26:09,890
in the submillimeter,

470
00:26:09,890 --> 00:26:12,970
they worked kind of like the radio in your car.

471
00:26:12,970 --> 00:26:16,710
And we tune them to a very very precise frequency.

472
00:26:16,710 --> 00:26:18,800
When we're tuned to that frequency,

473
00:26:18,800 --> 00:26:23,600
{\an8}we know exactly what molecule that must be emitted from.

474
00:26:23,600 --> 00:26:25,960
Just like when you change your favorite radio station

475
00:26:25,960 --> 00:26:28,423
we know you've got the radio station that you like.

476
00:26:29,740 --> 00:26:32,310
The data contained a surprising shock

477
00:26:32,310 --> 00:26:34,850
one they can't fully account for.

478
00:26:34,850 --> 00:26:36,543
The molecule, phosphene.

479
00:26:37,660 --> 00:26:39,040
When you're looking at a wavelength

480
00:26:39,040 --> 00:26:40,810
for about one millimeter,

481
00:26:40,810 --> 00:26:44,760
Venus essentially acts like a giant light bulb in the sky.

482
00:26:44,760 --> 00:26:46,770
But if you look at a very specific wavelength,

483
00:26:46,770 --> 00:26:48,620
a little bit of that light is missing

484
00:26:48,620 --> 00:26:51,900
because the phosphene molecules have absorbed it.

485
00:26:51,900 --> 00:26:53,730
A potential biomarker,

486
00:26:53,730 --> 00:26:57,100
phosphene is produced by bacteria microbes on earth

487
00:26:57,100 --> 00:26:58,983
in oxygen free environments.

488
00:27:00,130 --> 00:27:02,300
It's also a toxic gas

489
00:27:02,300 --> 00:27:06,840
industrially manufactured for agricultural fumigation

490
00:27:06,840 --> 00:27:09,590
and an otherwise rare natural compound,

491
00:27:09,590 --> 00:27:11,940
says Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

492
00:27:11,940 --> 00:27:14,070
Prof. Sarah Seager,

493
00:27:14,070 --> 00:27:17,523
one of six MIT co-authors of the team study.

494
00:27:18,950 --> 00:27:22,680
{\an8}Phosphene is an extremely difficult molecule to make.

495
00:27:22,680 --> 00:27:25,910
{\an8}It is only spontaneously made an extreme environment

496
00:27:25,910 --> 00:27:28,040
such as what do you find in the hellish depths

497
00:27:28,040 --> 00:27:29,163
of Jupiter and Saturn.

498
00:27:30,210 --> 00:27:32,750
Seager and her MIT colleagues,

499
00:27:32,750 --> 00:27:35,290
including researcher, Janice Petkoskey

500
00:27:35,290 --> 00:27:37,600
examined the evidence of phosphene

501
00:27:37,600 --> 00:27:39,660
in the Venusian atmosphere

502
00:27:39,660 --> 00:27:41,253
looking for an explanation.

503
00:27:43,290 --> 00:27:47,170
And we concluded that there is no known chemical

504
00:27:47,170 --> 00:27:48,480
and physical process

505
00:27:48,480 --> 00:27:50,630
that could conceivably produce phosphene

506
00:27:50,630 --> 00:27:53,880
so this adds to the mystery of Venus

507
00:27:53,880 --> 00:27:58,090
and then this opens a very, rather bold possibility

508
00:27:58,090 --> 00:28:01,413
that there might be something living in the clouds of Venus.

509
00:28:03,080 --> 00:28:06,450
It's believed that once long ago,

510
00:28:06,450 --> 00:28:10,450
Venus was more Earth-like with vast oceans

511
00:28:10,450 --> 00:28:13,070
but conditions on the planet changed

512
00:28:13,070 --> 00:28:17,000
perhaps as recently as 700 million years ago,

513
00:28:17,000 --> 00:28:18,560
the oceans disappeared

514
00:28:18,560 --> 00:28:20,850
and that thick carbon dioxide atmosphere

515
00:28:20,850 --> 00:28:22,093
engulfed the planet.

516
00:28:23,230 --> 00:28:25,970
But good life somehow have evolved

517
00:28:25,970 --> 00:28:29,210
and migrated to the upper decks of the clouds,

518
00:28:29,210 --> 00:28:33,210
an environment overloaded with severe gases.

519
00:28:33,210 --> 00:28:36,280
The idea has been around for a while actually.

520
00:28:36,280 --> 00:28:41,280
The late Carl Sagan wrote of the possibilities in 1967

521
00:28:41,530 --> 00:28:46,230
and MIT's, Seager recently theorized potential life cycles

522
00:28:46,230 --> 00:28:49,930
for Venusian cloud dwelling microbial life.

523
00:28:49,930 --> 00:28:52,550
Could phosphene be a bio-signature

524
00:28:52,550 --> 00:28:55,460
confirming extraterrestrial life?

525
00:28:55,460 --> 00:28:57,703
We don't have that answer yet.

526
00:28:59,730 --> 00:29:02,420
If we haven't been like outside the earth,

527
00:29:02,420 --> 00:29:05,100
it puts our own existence into perspective.

528
00:29:05,100 --> 00:29:08,690
But it also tells us that life may be much more common

529
00:29:08,690 --> 00:29:10,580
than we first imagined.

530
00:29:10,580 --> 00:29:13,840
And there's a huge array of possibilities out there

531
00:29:13,840 --> 00:29:15,110
in the galaxy

532
00:29:15,110 --> 00:29:19,260
of life with different biochemistries and desires.

533
00:29:19,260 --> 00:29:20,970
And of course, if we have fun life,

534
00:29:20,970 --> 00:29:23,260
right next door and planetary neighbor,

535
00:29:23,260 --> 00:29:24,360
that would be so cool.

536
00:29:25,560 --> 00:29:26,480
No doubt.

537
00:29:26,480 --> 00:29:30,480
This phosphene discovery has renewed interest in Venus.

538
00:29:30,480 --> 00:29:31,520
Greaves and her team

539
00:29:31,520 --> 00:29:34,770
plan to continue their observations and research

540
00:29:34,770 --> 00:29:37,080
but she realizes it may take a new visit

541
00:29:37,080 --> 00:29:38,410
to find an answer

542
00:29:38,410 --> 00:29:42,463
something NASA and others already on their drawing boards.

543
00:29:44,110 --> 00:29:46,040
So is it really life on Venus?

544
00:29:46,040 --> 00:29:47,500
I really hope so,

545
00:29:47,500 --> 00:29:49,040
but we can't absolutely tell

546
00:29:49,040 --> 00:29:50,950
what the results we've got so far.

547
00:29:50,950 --> 00:29:52,550
So it may be that the only thing to do

548
00:29:52,550 --> 00:29:55,370
is to send a spacecraft that can really sample

549
00:29:55,370 --> 00:29:57,420
and see if there're are life forms there.

550
00:29:59,760 --> 00:30:03,480
People have gazed upon the planets and stars for millennia

551
00:30:03,480 --> 00:30:05,500
eyes only at first.

552
00:30:05,500 --> 00:30:10,220
And then Galileo pointed his telescope, Skyward in 1609

553
00:30:10,220 --> 00:30:13,470
observing the phases of Venus a year later

554
00:30:13,470 --> 00:30:16,263
driving astronomy's technological march forward.

555
00:30:17,180 --> 00:30:19,490
Progress which continues today,

556
00:30:19,490 --> 00:30:23,323
eliminating new images and ideas about our universe.

557
00:30:26,990 --> 00:30:28,450
A quest for knowledge,

558
00:30:28,450 --> 00:30:32,530
that's all NASA's OSIRIS-REx Space probe settle into orbit

559
00:30:32,530 --> 00:30:36,383
around a 4.5 billion year old asteroid Bennu

560
00:30:36,383 --> 00:30:40,463
70 million miles away from earth in December of 2018.

561
00:30:43,530 --> 00:30:48,140
The goal of the mission, to study and explore the rocky body

562
00:30:48,140 --> 00:30:50,730
about the size of the empire state building

563
00:30:50,730 --> 00:30:54,500
hit its high point on October 20th, 2020.

564
00:30:54,500 --> 00:30:57,790
When the spacecraft's robotic arm tagged the surface

565
00:30:57,790 --> 00:31:00,710
of Bennu during a stunning six second

566
00:31:00,710 --> 00:31:02,820
touch and go and maneuver,

567
00:31:02,820 --> 00:31:04,870
stirring up and collecting debris

568
00:31:04,870 --> 00:31:08,763
to be stored and returned to Earth for further analysis.

569
00:31:09,934 --> 00:31:13,434
(participants applauding)

570
00:31:16,130 --> 00:31:17,740
In December, 2020,

571
00:31:17,740 --> 00:31:20,800
the Japanese space agency's, Hayabusa2 mission

572
00:31:20,800 --> 00:31:24,270
returned samples collected about a year earlier

573
00:31:24,270 --> 00:31:28,880
from another asteroid, 162173 Rigo.

574
00:31:33,169 --> 00:31:34,150
Scientists hope learning

575
00:31:34,150 --> 00:31:36,780
about the makeup of these ancient asteroids

576
00:31:36,780 --> 00:31:40,400
will offer clues about the origins of the solar system

577
00:31:40,400 --> 00:31:43,420
and maybe even life itself.

578
00:31:43,420 --> 00:31:47,943
NASA's Bennu sample is scheduled for Earth arrival in 2023.

579
00:31:49,010 --> 00:31:51,640
While these missions ventured millions of miles

580
00:31:51,640 --> 00:31:52,983
to seek their quarry,

581
00:31:54,080 --> 00:31:56,813
asteroids often come much closer to Earth.

582
00:32:00,050 --> 00:32:03,180
{\an8}NASA's Planetary Defense Coordination Office

583
00:32:03,180 --> 00:32:07,230
{\an8}scans the sky closer to home to locate, identify,

584
00:32:07,230 --> 00:32:10,720
and track near earth objects like asteroids

585
00:32:10,720 --> 00:32:12,070
and provide a warning

586
00:32:12,070 --> 00:32:16,050
in advance of any potentially catastrophic collisions.

587
00:32:16,050 --> 00:32:19,680
Still some miss detection until after they pass

588
00:32:19,680 --> 00:32:22,060
like the asteroid 2020 VT4

589
00:32:22,970 --> 00:32:24,900
about the size of a small house,

590
00:32:24,900 --> 00:32:29,120
it passed by a mere 238 miles above the earth surface

591
00:32:29,120 --> 00:32:32,510
on Friday, November 13th, 2020

592
00:32:32,510 --> 00:32:35,713
becoming the closest recorded fly by without impact.

593
00:32:37,920 --> 00:32:41,150
While there may be few day options to protect the planet

594
00:32:41,150 --> 00:32:43,393
from any future catastrophic collision,

595
00:32:44,920 --> 00:32:46,890
many have long argued,

596
00:32:46,890 --> 00:32:50,120
the most pressing dangers to Earth and its environment,

597
00:32:50,120 --> 00:32:52,690
including human induced climate change

598
00:32:52,690 --> 00:32:54,433
are already taking their toll.

599
00:32:59,680 --> 00:33:01,500
Shifting precipitation patterns

600
00:33:01,500 --> 00:33:04,330
and increased heat continue to leave forests

601
00:33:04,330 --> 00:33:06,963
of the American west dangerously dry.

602
00:33:08,110 --> 00:33:11,630
Tinder boxes which are getting ignited into wildfires

603
00:33:11,630 --> 00:33:14,100
during the summer of 2020,

604
00:33:14,100 --> 00:33:17,163
leveling communities and killing more than 40 people.

605
00:33:19,230 --> 00:33:22,430
They're saying it's coming all the way from Oregon

606
00:33:22,430 --> 00:33:25,330
which is hundreds of miles away.

607
00:33:25,330 --> 00:33:28,259
And it looks like the apocalypse right now.

608
00:33:28,259 --> 00:33:29,680
11:15 in the morning

609
00:33:29,680 --> 00:33:33,003
and it's like the middle of the night almost.

610
00:33:35,700 --> 00:33:38,700
Parts of California looked like a Mars escape

611
00:33:38,700 --> 00:33:41,943
due to the smooth orange glow from the flames.

612
00:33:46,250 --> 00:33:50,210
And in Australia, the black summer bushfires

613
00:33:50,210 --> 00:33:52,890
blazed as the new year began

614
00:33:52,890 --> 00:33:57,730
eventually burning an estimated 18.6 million hectares

615
00:33:57,730 --> 00:34:00,900
or about 72,000 square miles.

616
00:34:00,900 --> 00:34:02,070
The extent of the damage

617
00:34:02,070 --> 00:34:04,420
can be seen in these stunning satellite photos.

618
00:34:06,910 --> 00:34:10,270
The fires killed at least 34 people directly

619
00:34:10,270 --> 00:34:11,620
but the hundreds more deaths

620
00:34:11,620 --> 00:34:15,143
have been linked to smoke inhalation and poor air quality.

621
00:34:16,560 --> 00:34:18,702
The residents are doing all they can to stop this.

622
00:34:18,702 --> 00:34:20,130
There are helicopters coming in

623
00:34:20,130 --> 00:34:22,200
and planes dropping water every few minutes

624
00:34:22,200 --> 00:34:24,327
but things are looking pretty crazy here

625
00:34:24,327 --> 00:34:27,420
and in so many other places we've been today.

626
00:34:27,420 --> 00:34:29,300
Perhaps even more stunning,

627
00:34:29,300 --> 00:34:32,530
a study commissioned by the World Wildlife Fund

628
00:34:32,530 --> 00:34:36,300
estimates nearly 3 billion animals were killed

629
00:34:36,300 --> 00:34:38,440
or displaced by the fires,

630
00:34:38,440 --> 00:34:41,393
which burned in places until March, 2020.

631
00:34:42,890 --> 00:34:44,090
The figure breaks down

632
00:34:44,090 --> 00:34:47,390
to include nearly two and a half billion reptiles,

633
00:34:47,390 --> 00:34:52,390
180 million birds, 143 million mammals and 51 million frogs.

634
00:34:55,820 --> 00:34:57,570
Once you lose that number of animals,

635
00:34:57,570 --> 00:34:59,890
yeah, all of the ecological functions that they perform

636
00:34:59,890 --> 00:35:02,230
are likely to disappear as well.

637
00:35:02,230 --> 00:35:04,270
And these are important functions too.

638
00:35:04,270 --> 00:35:07,480
They include species that move pollen

639
00:35:07,480 --> 00:35:11,520
{\an8}from flower to flower to allow seed set.

640
00:35:11,520 --> 00:35:15,140
They include species that move fungal spores around

641
00:35:15,140 --> 00:35:17,480
and fungi are really important from the point of view

642
00:35:17,480 --> 00:35:21,180
of allowing green plants to grow vigorously

643
00:35:21,180 --> 00:35:22,930
and to reestablish those (murmurs).

644
00:35:25,570 --> 00:35:28,190
Many of Australia's most iconic animals

645
00:35:28,190 --> 00:35:32,570
succumbed to the flames, including kangaroos, wombats

646
00:35:32,570 --> 00:35:35,283
and thousands of already vulnerable cooperates.

647
00:35:42,330 --> 00:35:45,050
Of course, climate change manifests itself

648
00:35:45,050 --> 00:35:47,023
in other ominous ways as well.

649
00:35:48,260 --> 00:35:53,260
{\an8}NASA's ice, Cloud and land satellite 2, AKA ICESat-2

650
00:35:53,760 --> 00:35:56,430
uses lasers to record elevation measurements

651
00:35:56,430 --> 00:35:58,040
around the world,

652
00:35:58,040 --> 00:35:59,720
comparing its most recent data

653
00:35:59,720 --> 00:36:03,250
with figures from its predecessor ICESat-1.

654
00:36:03,250 --> 00:36:08,250
Scientists documented 16 years of massive ice sheet loss.

655
00:36:08,400 --> 00:36:11,710
200 gigatons a year in Greenland

656
00:36:11,710 --> 00:36:15,160
plus 118 gigatons in Antarctica.

657
00:36:15,160 --> 00:36:18,520
A gigaton of ice equals about 400,000

658
00:36:18,520 --> 00:36:20,343
Olympic size swimming pools.

659
00:36:21,750 --> 00:36:26,750
All totaled, this ice loss resulted in about 14 millimeters

660
00:36:26,820 --> 00:36:29,823
of sea level rise over 16 years.

661
00:36:31,260 --> 00:36:34,460
What we expect by the end of the century is,

662
00:36:34,460 --> 00:36:36,610
{\an8}on the order of two, three,

663
00:36:36,610 --> 00:36:38,583
{\an8}maybe four feet of sea level rise.

664
00:36:40,280 --> 00:36:43,453
But what exactly lies beneath Antarctica's ice?

665
00:36:44,700 --> 00:36:46,370
New analysis of core samples

666
00:36:46,370 --> 00:36:48,850
pulled from deep beneath the sea floor,

667
00:36:48,850 --> 00:36:52,133
near West Antarctica on earth, part of the answer,

668
00:36:53,500 --> 00:36:56,350
the remnants of prehistoric rainforest

669
00:36:56,350 --> 00:36:58,763
about 600 miles from the South Pole,

670
00:37:01,550 --> 00:37:04,400
the x-ray CT scans of the samples

671
00:37:04,400 --> 00:37:07,460
revealed plant pollen and spores

672
00:37:07,460 --> 00:37:10,130
as well as a network of fossilized roots

673
00:37:10,130 --> 00:37:11,983
from 90 million years ago.

674
00:37:13,370 --> 00:37:16,490
A much warmer time period for the planet.

675
00:37:16,490 --> 00:37:19,040
When the average mean temperature of Antarctica

676
00:37:19,040 --> 00:37:22,593
was similar to Northern Italy today, researchers say.

677
00:37:23,680 --> 00:37:26,270
Comfortable by most standards,

678
00:37:26,270 --> 00:37:28,420
of course, there's warm

679
00:37:28,420 --> 00:37:30,153
and then there's just plain hot.

680
00:37:32,290 --> 00:37:34,440
On August 16th, 2020,

681
00:37:34,440 --> 00:37:37,750
the temperature spiked to 130 degrees Fahrenheit

682
00:37:37,750 --> 00:37:39,210
at Furnace Creek,

683
00:37:39,210 --> 00:37:42,163
a remote location in California's Death Valley.

684
00:37:43,900 --> 00:37:47,480
If verified by the World Meteorological Organization,

685
00:37:47,480 --> 00:37:50,000
it would go down as the third hottest temperature

686
00:37:50,000 --> 00:37:53,593
in recorded history and the hottest since 1931.

687
00:37:55,980 --> 00:37:58,910
Unfortunately, Earth's Southern Hemisphere

688
00:37:58,910 --> 00:38:01,630
wasn't immune to extreme heat either.

689
00:38:01,630 --> 00:38:03,460
And it took a devastating toll

690
00:38:03,460 --> 00:38:06,640
on one of the seven natural wonders of the world.

691
00:38:06,640 --> 00:38:08,640
Australia's coral network

692
00:38:08,640 --> 00:38:10,703
known as the Great Barrier of Reef.

693
00:38:12,917 --> 00:38:14,780
{\an8}In the summer of 2020 in Australia

694
00:38:14,780 --> 00:38:17,123
{\an8}was literally the summer from hell.

695
00:38:18,020 --> 00:38:21,080
{\an8}Terry Hughes is a professor of marine biology

696
00:38:21,080 --> 00:38:22,720
{\an8}at James Cook University

697
00:38:22,720 --> 00:38:25,370
{\an8}and the director of the ARC Center of Excellence

698
00:38:25,370 --> 00:38:26,783
{\an8}for Coral Reef Studies.

699
00:38:27,820 --> 00:38:30,330
So we knew it was record breaking temperatures

700
00:38:30,330 --> 00:38:33,900
in February, we were getting more and more reports

701
00:38:33,900 --> 00:38:37,330
from divers, from scientists, from the tourism industry

702
00:38:37,330 --> 00:38:40,460
that the corals were starting to turn pale

703
00:38:40,460 --> 00:38:43,633
and increasingly more and more of them were white.

704
00:38:44,740 --> 00:38:47,320
Changes in environmental conditions

705
00:38:47,320 --> 00:38:50,020
like excessive heat can stress corals

706
00:38:50,020 --> 00:38:53,570
causing them to expel the algae that lives in their tissues

707
00:38:53,570 --> 00:38:56,963
leaving the corals ghostly white or bleached.

708
00:38:58,080 --> 00:39:01,400
And the whiteness is actually fixed skeleton,

709
00:39:01,400 --> 00:39:04,592
the carbonate skeleton underlying the coral tissue

710
00:39:04,592 --> 00:39:07,713
that you can then see when the algae die back.

711
00:39:09,620 --> 00:39:12,020
2020 witness the Great Barrier Reef's

712
00:39:12,020 --> 00:39:14,623
fifth major bleaching in 22 years.

713
00:39:15,580 --> 00:39:18,420
And they're happening with increasing frequency,

714
00:39:18,420 --> 00:39:20,423
three in the last five years.

715
00:39:22,940 --> 00:39:25,760
{\an8}Due to Australia's corona virus shutdown,

716
00:39:25,760 --> 00:39:27,640
{\an8}this time, Hughes and his team

717
00:39:27,640 --> 00:39:30,980
{\an8}had to quickly coordinate their aerial surveys.

718
00:39:30,980 --> 00:39:33,580
11 flights in nine days.

719
00:39:33,580 --> 00:39:37,220
{\an8}Over more than 1000 individual reefs

720
00:39:37,220 --> 00:39:40,760
{\an8}about a third of the entire Great Barrier Reef.

721
00:39:40,760 --> 00:39:42,633
What they witnessed was unnerving.

722
00:39:46,290 --> 00:39:49,400
The heat was relatively uniform.

723
00:39:49,400 --> 00:39:52,960
So this time around, the most extensive bleaching we saw

724
00:39:52,960 --> 00:39:56,300
was with relatively naive corals in the south

725
00:39:56,300 --> 00:39:59,040
which hadn't been exposed to severe heat stress

726
00:39:59,040 --> 00:40:01,760
in the two earlier events.

727
00:40:01,760 --> 00:40:03,390
We're very worried about the gap

728
00:40:03,390 --> 00:40:06,030
between one bleaching event and the next

729
00:40:06,030 --> 00:40:07,980
because it's shrinking.

730
00:40:07,980 --> 00:40:09,530
The gap is really important

731
00:40:09,530 --> 00:40:11,900
because that is the window of opportunity

732
00:40:11,900 --> 00:40:14,820
for the bleached corals to recover

733
00:40:14,820 --> 00:40:16,533
{\an8}for them to rebuild their homes.

734
00:40:18,930 --> 00:40:22,050
{\an8}Sometimes corals can survive and recover their color

735
00:40:22,050 --> 00:40:23,680
{\an8}in a few weeks or a months

736
00:40:24,670 --> 00:40:27,200
{\an8}but when severe and widespread,

737
00:40:27,200 --> 00:40:31,153
bleaching often leads to dead coral and altered seascapes.

738
00:40:34,360 --> 00:40:37,030
I think the Great Barrier thin to 20 years time

739
00:40:37,030 --> 00:40:38,760
is going to look very very different

740
00:40:38,760 --> 00:40:40,670
from what it looks like now.

741
00:40:40,670 --> 00:40:43,910
The mix of species will continue to change.

742
00:40:43,910 --> 00:40:47,110
However, if we don't control greenhouse gas emissions

743
00:40:47,110 --> 00:40:50,820
if the world warms by three or four degrees centigrade,

744
00:40:50,820 --> 00:40:53,910
then I don't think we will have a recognizable

745
00:40:53,910 --> 00:40:55,543
coral reef ecosystem.

746
00:40:57,120 --> 00:41:00,200
And that would be a devastating loss for Australia

747
00:41:00,200 --> 00:41:01,033
and the world.

748
00:41:03,090 --> 00:41:05,580
Healthy reefs, not only support a vast array

749
00:41:05,580 --> 00:41:07,370
of colorful sea life,

750
00:41:07,370 --> 00:41:10,210
they also provide critical services for people

751
00:41:10,210 --> 00:41:14,270
serving as spawning grounds for fish that feed billions

752
00:41:14,270 --> 00:41:18,750
boosting incomes and economic development through tourism

753
00:41:18,750 --> 00:41:22,263
and even hold the key to new medical drugs and treatments.

754
00:41:24,290 --> 00:41:28,020
But new findings from Global FinPrint, a five-year study

755
00:41:28,020 --> 00:41:30,710
funded by the Paul G. Allen Foundation,

756
00:41:30,710 --> 00:41:33,113
again suggests all is not well.

757
00:41:34,820 --> 00:41:39,520
In too many places, sharks, the oceans apex predator

758
00:41:39,520 --> 00:41:42,880
and phyto reef denison have gone missing.

759
00:41:46,080 --> 00:41:49,120
After working in 58 nations

760
00:41:49,120 --> 00:41:52,150
{\an8}what we can say is that sharks are functionally extinct

761
00:41:52,150 --> 00:41:54,760
{\an8}on probably 20% of the reefs out there.

762
00:41:54,760 --> 00:41:57,620
That means they're not filling the ecological roles they do

763
00:41:57,620 --> 00:41:59,553
when we have healthy ecosystems.

764
00:42:00,440 --> 00:42:02,550
Dr. Mike Heithaus and his team

765
00:42:02,550 --> 00:42:04,810
from Florida International University

766
00:42:04,810 --> 00:42:06,370
arrived at their conclusion

767
00:42:06,370 --> 00:42:09,560
after analyzing 15,000 hours of recordings

768
00:42:09,560 --> 00:42:11,063
from their baited cameras.

769
00:42:12,830 --> 00:42:15,260
During 800 hours of footage

770
00:42:15,260 --> 00:42:18,450
in waters around six nations and territories

771
00:42:18,450 --> 00:42:21,930
including the Dominican Republic, Kenya, and Vietnam

772
00:42:21,930 --> 00:42:24,353
only three sharks were spotted.

773
00:42:26,200 --> 00:42:29,930
Perhaps not surprising when considering every year,

774
00:42:29,930 --> 00:42:33,800
about 100 million sharks are killed by humans

775
00:42:33,800 --> 00:42:37,030
victims of illegal fishing practices

776
00:42:37,030 --> 00:42:40,253
and the insatiable appetite for shark fin soup.

777
00:42:41,290 --> 00:42:42,650
But the other takeaway,

778
00:42:42,650 --> 00:42:44,190
is that there reservoirs of hope.

779
00:42:44,190 --> 00:42:46,470
There're places where sharks are doing well

780
00:42:46,470 --> 00:42:48,180
and if we protect these areas that are in trouble

781
00:42:48,180 --> 00:42:49,910
they can repopulate them.

782
00:42:49,910 --> 00:42:52,620
And we now know which levers we can pull

783
00:42:52,620 --> 00:42:53,870
to help make that happen.

784
00:42:56,620 --> 00:42:58,540
And so, FinPrint uses its numbers

785
00:42:58,540 --> 00:42:59,850
to advocate for changes

786
00:42:59,850 --> 00:43:03,510
to improve the conditions for shark and people alike.

787
00:43:03,510 --> 00:43:06,570
Says study colleague, Dr. Demian Chapman

788
00:43:07,500 --> 00:43:11,110
In Balice for example, we took that data to the gumball.

789
00:43:11,110 --> 00:43:13,370
We showed that sharks were quite depleted

790
00:43:13,370 --> 00:43:16,670
{\an8}in many areas in Balice and the government took action

791
00:43:16,670 --> 00:43:18,550
to actually reverse that.

792
00:43:18,550 --> 00:43:20,690
They put in some new policies.

793
00:43:20,690 --> 00:43:21,900
And even more than that,

794
00:43:21,900 --> 00:43:23,940
we were able to go into the fishing communities

795
00:43:23,940 --> 00:43:25,200
that they identified

796
00:43:25,200 --> 00:43:28,440
and hire the guys that fish for sharks

797
00:43:28,440 --> 00:43:31,057
to actually work with us to do surveys.

798
00:43:31,057 --> 00:43:34,460
And that actually provided an alternative livelihood

799
00:43:34,460 --> 00:43:37,250
other than fishing that was good for the people

800
00:43:37,250 --> 00:43:38,348
and the sharks.

801
00:43:38,348 --> 00:43:40,740
And that's really what we need more of.

802
00:43:40,740 --> 00:43:44,373
After all, stories of recovery can float the idea,

803
00:43:45,220 --> 00:43:46,403
all is not lost.

804
00:43:49,400 --> 00:43:52,653
Off the coast of California, urchins have taken over.

805
00:43:53,640 --> 00:43:56,160
Humans have over hunted their predators

806
00:43:56,160 --> 00:43:59,840
and in areas there are 35 times more urchins

807
00:43:59,840 --> 00:44:00,890
than there should be.

808
00:44:03,560 --> 00:44:06,393
With nothing to fear, they eat all the calories,

809
00:44:07,300 --> 00:44:10,503
essentially clear cutting this underwater forest.

810
00:44:13,950 --> 00:44:17,253
{\an8}In Los Angeles, however, an answer has been found.

811
00:44:18,430 --> 00:44:20,110
{\an8}The solution to this problem

812
00:44:20,110 --> 00:44:22,020
{\an8}is putting more people back into the system

813
00:44:22,020 --> 00:44:23,223
to get the balance back.

814
00:44:24,290 --> 00:44:27,730
So, the Bay Foundation enlisted former urchin divers

815
00:44:27,730 --> 00:44:29,163
to help turn back time.

816
00:44:31,000 --> 00:44:32,270
Leaving these urchin barns

817
00:44:32,270 --> 00:44:34,450
maybe just leave the ocean dead.

818
00:44:34,450 --> 00:44:37,303
So when we encountered this, we knew we had to do something.

819
00:44:38,220 --> 00:44:40,680
Then when the predators are in place,

820
00:44:40,680 --> 00:44:42,540
things stay in balance.

821
00:44:42,540 --> 00:44:45,000
So we did what the predators would do.

822
00:44:45,000 --> 00:44:46,260
Get rid of the urchins

823
00:44:48,150 --> 00:44:52,260
Contrary to its name, giant kelp starts out small

824
00:44:52,260 --> 00:44:56,570
using tiny hold fast to attach itself to the rocks.

825
00:44:56,570 --> 00:45:00,143
Once rooted however, the kelp begins to grow quickly.

826
00:45:01,090 --> 00:45:03,370
And as the kelp forest comes back,

827
00:45:03,370 --> 00:45:05,240
so does the life it supports

828
00:45:06,680 --> 00:45:09,100
including giant sea bass,

829
00:45:09,100 --> 00:45:11,513
the apex predators of this ecosystem.

830
00:45:12,480 --> 00:45:15,780
Their return really does signify the full rebirth

831
00:45:15,780 --> 00:45:17,133
of this kelp forest.

832
00:45:18,670 --> 00:45:23,130
The magic in this is we can take this kelp forest

833
00:45:23,130 --> 00:45:26,760
turn it back into something that looked like historically.

834
00:45:26,760 --> 00:45:29,330
The world is right here in our feet.

835
00:45:29,330 --> 00:45:32,927
Los Angeles has extreme pressures from a large population

836
00:45:32,927 --> 00:45:34,663
and a highly developed coastline.

837
00:45:35,690 --> 00:45:39,070
For us to find space for nature here

838
00:45:39,070 --> 00:45:40,580
means that we can find space for nature

839
00:45:40,580 --> 00:45:41,780
anywhere on this planet.

840
00:45:42,660 --> 00:45:47,440
True, underwater and above ground as well.

841
00:45:47,440 --> 00:45:50,130
Welcome to Isle Royale,

842
00:45:50,130 --> 00:45:53,950
a US national park, 20 miles off the northwest coastline

843
00:45:53,950 --> 00:45:57,583
of Lake Superior, opposite Thunder Bay, Ontario.

844
00:45:59,070 --> 00:46:02,290
45 miles long, nine miles wide,

845
00:46:02,290 --> 00:46:06,160
it's difficult to find a Wilder, more isolated place.

846
00:46:06,160 --> 00:46:09,090
It's also the site of the oldest predator prey study

847
00:46:09,090 --> 00:46:09,923
in the world.

848
00:46:11,300 --> 00:46:13,570
There was a healthy population of wolves here

849
00:46:13,570 --> 00:46:15,540
for almost 60 years.

850
00:46:15,540 --> 00:46:18,903
But now, only two wolves remain on the island.

851
00:46:19,970 --> 00:46:24,283
As a result, the moose population has ballooned to 2000.

852
00:46:25,840 --> 00:46:29,150
Beaver lodge numbers are over 540.

853
00:46:29,150 --> 00:46:33,283
Both species are changing the landscape and the ecosystem.

854
00:46:35,860 --> 00:46:38,660
The park service decided to act,

855
00:46:38,660 --> 00:46:42,290
introducing wolves for the good of the entire ecosystem

856
00:46:42,290 --> 00:46:43,243
on Isle Royale.

857
00:46:45,010 --> 00:46:46,650
The reason we're bringing wolves out

858
00:46:46,650 --> 00:46:48,707
{\an8}is to be that apex predator.

859
00:46:48,707 --> 00:46:52,750
{\an8}And the reason we want an apex predator in the ecosystem

860
00:46:52,750 --> 00:46:55,253
{\an8}is that we want to have all the pieces.

861
00:46:56,190 --> 00:47:00,203
We wanna make sure the forest can continue on as a chip.

862
00:47:02,370 --> 00:47:04,300
Winter ice bridges are important

863
00:47:04,300 --> 00:47:06,973
to the genetic refreshment of the wolf population.

864
00:47:08,250 --> 00:47:12,193
But as winters warm, the ice bridges become less reliable.

865
00:47:16,160 --> 00:47:21,160
So today, the new bridge to Isle Royale is by air and boat.

866
00:47:21,270 --> 00:47:23,280
And these mainland wolves are the founders

867
00:47:23,280 --> 00:47:25,553
of a whole new population on Isle Royale.

868
00:47:28,282 --> 00:47:30,699
(calm music)

869
00:47:32,240 --> 00:47:35,323
(indistinct murmurs)

870
00:47:37,200 --> 00:47:40,490
Over the next few years, the US National Park Service

871
00:47:40,490 --> 00:47:43,610
and its collaborators, intend to capture wolves,

872
00:47:43,610 --> 00:47:46,910
males and females, and move them out to Isle Royale

873
00:47:46,910 --> 00:47:49,893
to grow the population and refresh the gene pool.

874
00:47:52,467 --> 00:47:54,884
(indistinct)

875
00:47:56,870 --> 00:48:01,433
So far, 19 of 30 wolves have been relocated to the island.

876
00:48:03,590 --> 00:48:07,830
Lynette Potvin is an ecologist at Isle Royale National Park.

877
00:48:07,830 --> 00:48:10,970
Her specialty, the connection between the plant community

878
00:48:10,970 --> 00:48:12,973
on the island and the moose.

879
00:48:14,330 --> 00:48:15,900
What we're expecting to see

880
00:48:15,900 --> 00:48:18,930
is a cascading effect of wolves

881
00:48:18,930 --> 00:48:20,610
regulating the population of moose

882
00:48:20,610 --> 00:48:23,590
and in turn, the moose will be more limited

883
00:48:23,590 --> 00:48:25,563
in their browse across the island.

884
00:48:26,890 --> 00:48:30,110
{\an8}So we'll see more balsam fir on the west end.

885
00:48:30,110 --> 00:48:33,490
{\an8}And in the east end, we'll see more recruitment of aspen,

886
00:48:33,490 --> 00:48:36,860
one of the important species on the other side of the island

887
00:48:36,860 --> 00:48:38,463
and sugar maples.

888
00:48:40,670 --> 00:48:43,333
In short, more biodiversity.

889
00:48:44,320 --> 00:48:47,870
Biodiversity gives ecosystems their strength and resilience

890
00:48:47,870 --> 00:48:49,193
in the face of change.

891
00:48:52,000 --> 00:48:55,860
The latest colors, let researchers track where the wolves go

892
00:48:57,780 --> 00:49:01,200
and an array of more than 150 remote cameras

893
00:49:01,200 --> 00:49:02,973
captured some of their behaviors.

894
00:49:03,870 --> 00:49:07,250
And something else pops.

895
00:49:07,250 --> 00:49:10,400
First, these two, born to a female

896
00:49:10,400 --> 00:49:12,683
which was pregnant when she was translocated.

897
00:49:15,398 --> 00:49:16,720
And then this mystery pup

898
00:49:16,720 --> 00:49:18,683
on the northeastern side of the island.

899
00:49:20,800 --> 00:49:23,070
And on the opposite end of the island

900
00:49:23,070 --> 00:49:26,540
small pup-sized scats indicating a litter

901
00:49:26,540 --> 00:49:28,363
may have been born in this den.

902
00:49:30,040 --> 00:49:31,590
It'll take more field research

903
00:49:31,590 --> 00:49:34,480
to confirm exactly how many pups have been born

904
00:49:34,480 --> 00:49:36,560
and how many have survived.

905
00:49:36,560 --> 00:49:38,100
But these initial discoveries

906
00:49:38,100 --> 00:49:40,313
are a major step in the right direction.

907
00:49:41,400 --> 00:49:43,270
In having reproduction

908
00:49:43,270 --> 00:49:45,280
at two different ends of the islands

909
00:49:45,280 --> 00:49:47,890
suggesting there are at least two packs,

910
00:49:47,890 --> 00:49:50,950
we're well on our way to meeting the goals of the project,

911
00:49:50,950 --> 00:49:53,140
which is three to four packs

912
00:49:54,070 --> 00:49:56,710
having reproduction on an annual basis.

913
00:49:56,710 --> 00:49:59,090
Killing moose, killing beavers,

914
00:49:59,090 --> 00:50:00,560
doing everything that wolves do.

915
00:50:00,560 --> 00:50:03,340
I mean, that's what we want.

916
00:50:03,340 --> 00:50:04,800
The future of any pups

917
00:50:04,800 --> 00:50:07,470
will depend on whether they can find a mate

918
00:50:07,470 --> 00:50:10,800
and a social structure that allows them to flourish

919
00:50:10,800 --> 00:50:12,693
in this isolated ecosystem.

920
00:50:13,592 --> 00:50:16,175
(wolf howling)

921
00:50:19,650 --> 00:50:22,030
Well, groundbreaking studies and innovations

922
00:50:22,030 --> 00:50:25,033
may help return balance to struggling ecosystems.

923
00:50:25,930 --> 00:50:28,450
Can new technologies actually bring back

924
00:50:28,450 --> 00:50:30,460
long lost creatures?

925
00:50:30,460 --> 00:50:33,663
Some gone from the planet for millions of years?

926
00:50:34,950 --> 00:50:37,700
Until now, the oldest known genetic material

927
00:50:37,700 --> 00:50:38,810
from a vertebrate

928
00:50:38,810 --> 00:50:40,870
came from the tooth of a rhinoceros

929
00:50:40,870 --> 00:50:43,597
that lived 1.7 million years ago.

930
00:50:44,530 --> 00:50:48,330
But a new discovery announced in January of 2020

931
00:50:48,330 --> 00:50:51,520
may show chromosomes that are 75 million years

932
00:50:51,520 --> 00:50:52,353
older than that

933
00:50:53,240 --> 00:50:56,963
preserved in the cells of a baby duck-billed dinosaur.

934
00:50:58,560 --> 00:51:02,150
Dr. Alida Bailleul of the Chinese Academy of Sciences

935
00:51:02,150 --> 00:51:03,783
pioneered the investigation.

936
00:51:05,020 --> 00:51:08,850
When Alida first viewed slices from the baby dinosaur skull

937
00:51:08,850 --> 00:51:10,210
under the microscope

938
00:51:10,210 --> 00:51:12,180
she found what appeared to be cells

939
00:51:12,180 --> 00:51:13,973
that hadn't yet turned to bone,

940
00:51:15,110 --> 00:51:17,620
but she noticed something else

941
00:51:17,620 --> 00:51:19,533
something that made her heart race.

942
00:51:21,200 --> 00:51:24,050
Time completely froze.

943
00:51:24,050 --> 00:51:27,563
{\an8}And I just, I couldn't really believe it.

944
00:51:29,850 --> 00:51:32,000
Some of the cells seem to be caught

945
00:51:32,000 --> 00:51:33,903
in the process of division.

946
00:51:35,580 --> 00:51:37,640
So you could see inside the cells

947
00:51:37,640 --> 00:51:40,120
some of them still had a dark material

948
00:51:40,120 --> 00:51:43,320
that looked like fossilized dinosaur nuclei.

949
00:51:43,320 --> 00:51:44,690
And there was another cell

950
00:51:44,690 --> 00:51:46,360
where you could see little threads

951
00:51:46,360 --> 00:51:51,360
near dark threads of a dark material inside the cell

952
00:51:51,960 --> 00:51:56,740
which shows all the characteristics of chromosomes.

953
00:51:56,740 --> 00:51:59,623
And so, chromosomes are made of chromatin

954
00:51:59,623 --> 00:52:04,430
and chromatin is made of DNA and proteins.

955
00:52:04,430 --> 00:52:06,500
Alida then asked Mary Schweitzer,

956
00:52:06,500 --> 00:52:08,980
a molecular paleontologist and professor

957
00:52:08,980 --> 00:52:11,210
at North Carolina State University

958
00:52:11,210 --> 00:52:13,753
to help confirm her remarkable findings.

959
00:52:15,640 --> 00:52:18,700
So we did all kinds of chemistry on those cells

960
00:52:18,700 --> 00:52:22,670
{\an8}and had many different lines of evidence

961
00:52:22,670 --> 00:52:24,650
{\an8}that they were really truly cells

962
00:52:24,650 --> 00:52:26,180
that came from the dinosaur

963
00:52:26,180 --> 00:52:29,240
and weren't some kind of a weird artifact.

964
00:52:29,240 --> 00:52:32,090
They needed to compare the fossilized cells

965
00:52:32,090 --> 00:52:34,310
to those in a living creature.

966
00:52:34,310 --> 00:52:37,970
And so, because birds descended from dinosaurs

967
00:52:37,970 --> 00:52:39,820
they chose an emu.

968
00:52:39,820 --> 00:52:43,390
The primitive birds, ostrich, emu, kiwi,

969
00:52:43,390 --> 00:52:47,610
those are very very primitive birds, basal birds.

970
00:52:47,610 --> 00:52:52,423
And so, they have more things in common with dinosaurs.

971
00:52:53,360 --> 00:52:57,063
Using chemical stains that bind two nuclear materials,

972
00:52:57,900 --> 00:52:59,660
the scientists discovered evidence

973
00:52:59,660 --> 00:53:03,410
of similar DNA type proteins on the cellular level

974
00:53:03,410 --> 00:53:04,723
in both samples.

975
00:53:06,400 --> 00:53:07,960
Then once we did that,

976
00:53:07,960 --> 00:53:11,990
we applied some DNA stains to those cells.

977
00:53:11,990 --> 00:53:16,990
And we did two stains that are used in all biological labs

978
00:53:17,170 --> 00:53:18,880
around the world.

979
00:53:18,880 --> 00:53:22,320
They bind to DNA, to double double-stranded DNA,

980
00:53:22,320 --> 00:53:27,170
and you need at least between five to base bears to bind.

981
00:53:27,170 --> 00:53:32,170
And when you put the cells under a fluorescent lights

982
00:53:33,410 --> 00:53:37,670
propidium iodide becomes red and (indistinct) becomes blue.

983
00:53:37,670 --> 00:53:41,783
And the two tests were positive in the dinosaur cell.

984
00:53:42,710 --> 00:53:44,120
I mean, it was very cool

985
00:53:44,120 --> 00:53:46,820
because I could not think of anything

986
00:53:46,820 --> 00:53:48,750
naturally occurring in the rock record

987
00:53:48,750 --> 00:53:50,480
that would look like chromosomes

988
00:53:50,480 --> 00:53:54,060
lined up along a metaphase plate and inactive division.

989
00:53:54,060 --> 00:53:55,483
It was pretty spectacular.

990
00:53:56,700 --> 00:54:01,550
If 75 million year old DNA is still around today,

991
00:54:01,550 --> 00:54:03,333
it will be astonishing.

992
00:54:04,270 --> 00:54:06,480
But rest assured,

993
00:54:06,480 --> 00:54:09,850
the team's goal isn't to bring a dinosaur back to life

994
00:54:09,850 --> 00:54:11,267
like in "Jurassic Park."

995
00:54:12,510 --> 00:54:15,360
Right now, the scientific community really accepts

996
00:54:15,360 --> 00:54:18,480
that DNA cannot preserve longer than 1 million years.

997
00:54:18,480 --> 00:54:23,480
{\an8}And this fossil is 75 million years old.

998
00:54:24,170 --> 00:54:29,170
{\an8}So, this study is really changing some ideas about,

999
00:54:30,230 --> 00:54:32,920
some possibilities about fossilization

1000
00:54:32,920 --> 00:54:34,943
of DNA and biomolecules.

1001
00:54:37,140 --> 00:54:39,050
A full dinosaur genome,

1002
00:54:39,050 --> 00:54:40,500
I don't think that's possible

1003
00:54:41,380 --> 00:54:43,850
but if we can get just access

1004
00:54:43,850 --> 00:54:46,430
to a little bit of the DNA sequences

1005
00:54:46,430 --> 00:54:48,470
of these really old organisms,

1006
00:54:48,470 --> 00:54:51,843
it's really gonna open a whole new world.

1007
00:54:53,040 --> 00:54:58,040
Okay, using ancient DNA to rebuild and resurrect dinosaurs

1008
00:54:58,250 --> 00:55:01,400
might not be entirely feasible at the moment.

1009
00:55:01,400 --> 00:55:03,373
But what about working backwards?

1010
00:55:04,611 --> 00:55:08,160
(chicken crowing)

1011
00:55:08,160 --> 00:55:09,895
At Yale University,

1012
00:55:09,895 --> 00:55:13,040
Prof. Bhart-Anjan Bhullar and his team

1013
00:55:13,040 --> 00:55:15,870
wanted to see if they could reverse evolution

1014
00:55:15,870 --> 00:55:19,483
and turn the bird back into a dinosaurian ancestor.

1015
00:55:21,523 --> 00:55:24,523
(dinosaurs roaring)

1016
00:55:28,860 --> 00:55:31,530
Even though the depictions of "Tyrannosaurus"

1017
00:55:31,530 --> 00:55:34,280
and "Jurassic Park" are of a more lizard like animal

1018
00:55:34,280 --> 00:55:36,730
that's kind of been a long floppy body,

1019
00:55:36,730 --> 00:55:38,470
{\an8}now we're seeing more and more.

1020
00:55:38,470 --> 00:55:41,620
{\an8}That when these animals are preserved in situ,

1021
00:55:41,620 --> 00:55:45,480
in their natural orientation with their natural body form,

1022
00:55:45,480 --> 00:55:48,273
the bodies of dinosaurs were remarkably bird-like.

1023
00:55:52,580 --> 00:55:55,760
The torsos were short and very very deep,

1024
00:55:55,760 --> 00:55:58,263
heavily muscled, and extremely stiff.

1025
00:55:59,640 --> 00:56:01,500
(dinosaurs roaring)

1026
00:56:01,500 --> 00:56:05,720
You want a relative of T-Rex that in body and in act,

1027
00:56:05,720 --> 00:56:08,800
you need look no further than your local farm

1028
00:56:10,060 --> 00:56:13,593
because chickens are actually very primitive birds.

1029
00:56:16,670 --> 00:56:19,370
And they are predatory dinosaurs.

1030
00:56:19,370 --> 00:56:22,513
They are theropod dinosaurs, just like Tyrannosaurus Rex.

1031
00:56:24,870 --> 00:56:28,000
With the lab's powerful 3D equipment,

1032
00:56:28,000 --> 00:56:30,520
CT scanners and microscopy tools,

1033
00:56:30,520 --> 00:56:33,610
the researchers documented and virtually dissected

1034
00:56:33,610 --> 00:56:36,453
every aspect of the chicken embryo's development,

1035
00:56:37,290 --> 00:56:39,913
muscles, nerves, and skeleton.

1036
00:56:40,930 --> 00:56:45,053
We're seeing into the secret earliest lives of birds.

1037
00:56:46,630 --> 00:56:48,690
It's incredibly close to hatching

1038
00:56:48,690 --> 00:56:51,467
that birds gain many of their avian features

1039
00:56:51,467 --> 00:56:54,633
and overprint the dinosaurian form that they have.

1040
00:56:56,350 --> 00:56:58,340
Chickens take about 20 days to hatch.

1041
00:56:58,340 --> 00:57:02,560
We see a lot of this avian specific over printing

1042
00:57:02,560 --> 00:57:07,120
go on at around 18 of 20, 19 of 20.

1043
00:57:07,120 --> 00:57:08,490
But they found

1044
00:57:08,490 --> 00:57:11,830
even though beaks form shortly before hatching

1045
00:57:11,830 --> 00:57:14,080
their development results from a whole series

1046
00:57:14,080 --> 00:57:16,740
of chemical signals and gene activations

1047
00:57:16,740 --> 00:57:19,563
which begin at an earlier developmental stage.

1048
00:57:20,860 --> 00:57:25,010
{\an8}And so, his team of scientists removed the gene-driven bird

1049
00:57:25,010 --> 00:57:28,030
{\an8}specific protein from chickens faces

1050
00:57:28,030 --> 00:57:32,130
{\an8}to replicate the molecular activity of their early ancestry

1051
00:57:33,751 --> 00:57:35,713
{\an8}and let those embryos grow.

1052
00:57:37,652 --> 00:57:41,910
{\an8}And the results produced a chicken-raptor hybrid skull.

1053
00:57:43,200 --> 00:57:45,380
{\an8}When the skeletons did develop,

1054
00:57:45,380 --> 00:57:47,130
they ended up looking extraordinarily

1055
00:57:47,130 --> 00:57:50,610
like those of floss rapper-like dinosaurs

1056
00:57:50,610 --> 00:57:51,683
and not like birds.

1057
00:57:53,530 --> 00:57:55,320
They probably would have been viable.

1058
00:57:55,320 --> 00:57:56,290
We didn't have them.

1059
00:57:56,290 --> 00:57:57,913
There was no reason to,

1060
00:57:57,913 --> 00:57:58,746
we were doing an evolutionary experiment

1061
00:57:58,746 --> 00:58:01,063
we weren't trying to create a dinosaur.

1062
00:58:01,063 --> 00:58:03,980
(dinosaur roaring)

1063
00:58:06,060 --> 00:58:07,770
While the large genetic research

1064
00:58:07,770 --> 00:58:09,523
may have been purely academic,

1065
00:58:12,160 --> 00:58:15,430
the coronavirus pandemic highlighted critically needed

1066
00:58:15,430 --> 00:58:18,323
real-world applications for genetic studies.

1067
00:58:19,760 --> 00:58:22,370
On January 10th, 2020,

1068
00:58:22,370 --> 00:58:25,620
Chinese authorities released the genetic sequencing

1069
00:58:25,620 --> 00:58:29,420
of this new Corona virus, SARS CoV-2.

1070
00:58:29,420 --> 00:58:32,270
The world's scientific community quickly mobilized

1071
00:58:33,110 --> 00:58:35,760
including Prof. Paul Young and his team

1072
00:58:35,760 --> 00:58:37,903
at Australia's University of Queensland.

1073
00:58:39,410 --> 00:58:40,860
And as soon as that was done,

1074
00:58:40,860 --> 00:58:44,063
{\an8}we began work on developing our vaccine approach to it.

1075
00:58:45,440 --> 00:58:46,840
For the past six years,

1076
00:58:46,840 --> 00:58:50,420
they focus their work on broad-based vaccine modeling

1077
00:58:50,420 --> 00:58:54,470
using mRNA coding and adaptable methodology

1078
00:58:54,470 --> 00:58:57,940
able to quickly respond to new viruses as they emerge

1079
00:58:58,950 --> 00:59:01,523
a moment just like today's pandemic.

1080
00:59:02,830 --> 00:59:05,760
We made more than 200 different versions

1081
00:59:05,760 --> 00:59:09,403
before we settled on one particular vaccine candidate.

1082
00:59:10,780 --> 00:59:13,470
COVID 19's spike-like structures

1083
00:59:13,470 --> 00:59:17,870
exhibit a specific protein to gain entry into its host cells

1084
00:59:17,870 --> 00:59:19,183
in order to replicate.

1085
00:59:20,190 --> 00:59:23,310
One of the prime immune responses in antibody response

1086
00:59:23,310 --> 00:59:25,627
that targets that particular protein on the surface

1087
00:59:25,627 --> 00:59:27,050
of the virus,

1088
00:59:27,050 --> 00:59:30,460
and that can generate a neutralizing activity

1089
00:59:30,460 --> 00:59:33,373
or a killing activity that destroys the virus.

1090
00:59:34,380 --> 00:59:38,510
Young's line of attack aims to unleash the body's defenses

1091
00:59:38,510 --> 00:59:40,560
by introducing this protein,

1092
00:59:40,560 --> 00:59:43,170
{\an8}stabilized or clamped in position,

1093
00:59:43,170 --> 00:59:45,913
{\an8}as it would appear on the virus' surface.

1094
00:59:47,150 --> 00:59:50,380
{\an8}So that when we vaccinate individuals,

1095
00:59:50,380 --> 00:59:51,630
their immune response

1096
00:59:51,630 --> 00:59:54,753
sees this protein as though as it was the virus itself.

1097
00:59:55,910 --> 00:59:58,100
And that will mount the immune response

1098
00:59:58,100 --> 01:00:00,642
that can then become their memory response

1099
01:00:00,642 --> 01:00:03,110
subsequently encountered the live virus.

1100
01:00:03,110 --> 01:00:06,230
So we're trying to mimic the outer exterior of the virus

1101
01:00:06,230 --> 01:00:08,270
by generating this particular protein

1102
01:00:08,270 --> 01:00:09,570
as the vaccine immunology.

1103
01:00:11,200 --> 01:00:14,460
Disease pandemics litter human history.

1104
01:00:14,460 --> 01:00:18,100
But vaccination technology is a relatively recent tool

1105
01:00:18,100 --> 01:00:20,130
in our medical arsenal.

1106
01:00:20,130 --> 01:00:21,920
Vaccines are very important

1107
01:00:21,920 --> 01:00:24,970
for producing what we call herd immunity.

1108
01:00:24,970 --> 01:00:29,720
{\an8}And herd immunity is really the ways in which we can offset

1109
01:00:29,720 --> 01:00:31,940
the risk of large spreaders disease

1110
01:00:31,940 --> 01:00:35,610
by immunizing a large portion of the community from it

1111
01:00:35,610 --> 01:00:37,910
which means it's much harder for it to spread.

1112
01:00:39,080 --> 01:00:42,030
And that makes a vaccine a desperately needed tool

1113
01:00:42,030 --> 01:00:46,230
in the fight against the virus which causes COVID-19.

1114
01:00:46,230 --> 01:00:48,710
Of course, a global pandemic demands

1115
01:00:48,710 --> 01:00:50,773
a collaborative global response.

1116
01:00:51,820 --> 01:00:55,460
There are multiple vaccine approaches going forward

1117
01:00:55,460 --> 01:00:56,770
including our own,

1118
01:00:56,770 --> 01:00:57,950
and we're all of the belief

1119
01:00:57,950 --> 01:01:00,400
that we're not racing each other.

1120
01:01:00,400 --> 01:01:01,840
This is a race against the virus

1121
01:01:01,840 --> 01:01:04,820
and whoever gets there first in terms of a viable vaccine

1122
01:01:04,820 --> 01:01:06,123
we can all cheer for that.

1123
01:01:06,960 --> 01:01:09,960
And in fact, November saw multiple programs

1124
01:01:09,960 --> 01:01:11,670
report very promising results

1125
01:01:11,670 --> 01:01:14,010
from their Phase 3 human trials.

1126
01:01:14,010 --> 01:01:15,160
We have (indistinct).

1127
01:01:16,240 --> 01:01:19,220
Still, Australian virologist, Paul Young

1128
01:01:19,220 --> 01:01:22,280
realizes finding a safe vaccine that works

1129
01:01:22,280 --> 01:01:23,523
is just the start.

1130
01:01:24,400 --> 01:01:26,090
Perhaps the bigger challenge

1131
01:01:26,090 --> 01:01:28,853
will be executing on production and deployment.

1132
01:01:29,900 --> 01:01:32,250
If we're dealing with a viral pathogen

1133
01:01:32,250 --> 01:01:35,730
that is affecting essentially, the global community,

1134
01:01:35,730 --> 01:01:39,070
manufacturing that at scale at single sites

1135
01:01:39,070 --> 01:01:41,020
is probably not going to be viable.

1136
01:01:41,020 --> 01:01:44,980
So the real issues of the effectiveness of the vaccine

1137
01:01:44,980 --> 01:01:48,120
become almost secondary to our ability to deliver it

1138
01:01:48,120 --> 01:01:50,870
to a broad global population.

1139
01:01:50,870 --> 01:01:55,053
Young's answer, to essentially proceed on a dual track.

1140
01:01:57,150 --> 01:02:00,030
If we can ramp up that manufacturer

1141
01:02:00,030 --> 01:02:02,860
at the same time, we're determining efficacy,

1142
01:02:02,860 --> 01:02:05,300
then hopefully we will be able to deploy a lot earlier

1143
01:02:05,300 --> 01:02:07,750
than what a traditional pathway

1144
01:02:07,750 --> 01:02:09,983
of vaccine production would mean.

1145
01:02:10,910 --> 01:02:12,760
And that's just what they've done.

1146
01:02:12,760 --> 01:02:15,310
Young's team at the University of Queensland

1147
01:02:15,310 --> 01:02:18,840
inked an agreement to prepare and manufacture doses

1148
01:02:18,840 --> 01:02:21,853
before clinical trials finish up.

1149
01:02:22,710 --> 01:02:24,440
So manufacturing is beginning now.

1150
01:02:24,440 --> 01:02:26,350
The processes are being worked up now.

1151
01:02:26,350 --> 01:02:29,220
So the idea is that there will be vaccine at scale

1152
01:02:29,220 --> 01:02:31,320
when that regulatory approval is provided.

1153
01:02:32,270 --> 01:02:33,750
Should all go smoothly,

1154
01:02:33,750 --> 01:02:37,670
they expect 50 million doses available by late 2021

1155
01:02:37,670 --> 01:02:39,283
or early 2022.

1156
01:02:40,820 --> 01:02:43,010
The American public-private partnership,

1157
01:02:43,010 --> 01:02:46,620
Operation Warp Speed, hopes to move even faster

1158
01:02:46,620 --> 01:02:49,620
with the first doses from drug makers, Pfizer and Medina

1159
01:02:49,620 --> 01:02:51,920
are ready to be deployed immediately

1160
01:02:51,920 --> 01:02:54,130
after final FDA approval

1161
01:02:54,130 --> 01:02:57,090
perhaps as early as December, 2020,

1162
01:02:57,090 --> 01:02:59,210
following shortly after the United kingdom's,

1163
01:02:59,210 --> 01:03:02,073
December 2nd approval of Pfizer's vaccine.

1164
01:03:05,240 --> 01:03:08,233
The situation may still get worse before it gets better.

1165
01:03:09,560 --> 01:03:12,290
While its impact won't be immediate,

1166
01:03:12,290 --> 01:03:14,470
a safe and effective vaccine

1167
01:03:14,470 --> 01:03:16,180
will hopefully liberate the world

1168
01:03:16,180 --> 01:03:18,620
from the viruses vice-like grip

1169
01:03:18,620 --> 01:03:20,520
and will turn everyday life

1170
01:03:20,520 --> 01:03:22,833
to something resembling the recent past.

1171
01:03:23,880 --> 01:03:27,303
Thanks to science, always pushing forward.

1172
01:03:28,776 --> 01:03:31,359
(upbeat music)